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ATHLETIC  GAMES  IN  THE 
EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 


BY 

GERTRUDE  DUDLEY 

Director  of  the  Women's  Department  of  Physical 
Education,  University  of  Chicago 

AND 

FRANCES  A.  KELLOR 

Author  of  "Experimental  Sociology"  "Out  of  Work*' 


35     Ml 


NEW  YORK 
HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 

1909 


COPTRIOHT.   1909, 
BY 

HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 
Published.  Febrasry,  1909 


THE  QUINN    *   BODEN    CO.    PKESS 
BAHWAY,    N.    J. 


(LC> 


Tr-rjjiiV 


TO 
W.  G.  A. 

WHOSE  STANDARD  AND  ACHIEVEMENTS 

IN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  INSPIRE 

THE  BEST  EFFORTS  IN  OTHERS 


FOREWORD 

In  offering  to  the  public  the  results  of  our  investi- 
gation, experience  and  observation,  we  have  pur- 
posely set  ourselves  certain  limitations.  For  a  period 
of  ten  years  we  have  carefully  studied  the  educational 
value  of  organized  games  and  have  tested  with  all 
classes  of  girls — in  university,  high  school,  private 
school  and  social  institutions — the  theories  and  sug- 
gestions which  we  have  now  put  into  tangible  fonu, 
in  the  hope  that  those  interested  in  social  education 
and  group  welfare,  based  on  the  highest  individual 
efficiency,  will  find  some  value  in  them.  Our  experi- 
ments with  many  hundreds  of  students  and  players 
have  demonstrated  repeatedly  that  athletic  games  are 
real  factors  in  education. 

We  have  attempted  no  study  or  discussion  of  gym- 
nastics or  sports,  for  there  are  many  volumes  which 
deal  with  these  subjects.  Furthermore,  sports  are 
individual,  their  purpose  is  primarily  recreative  and  \ 
they  do  not  depend  upon  the  co-operation  of  any  / 
other  individual.  Walking,  riding,  swimming,  golf, 
bowling,  archery  and  track  events  are  types  of  such 
sports.  On  the  other  hand,  athletic  games  arc  social 
in  their  nature  and  may  be  used  for  both  education 
and  recreation.  These  games  consist  of  a  set  of 
actions  performed  according  to  prescribed  rules  and 
depend  for  their  success  upon  the  co-operative  action 

V 


vi  FOREWORD 

of  two  or  more  persons.  They  include  the  highly 
organized  games  of  basketball,  indoor  baseball, 
hockey,  lacrosse,  cricket,  etc.,  as  well  as  such  minor 
games  as  captain-ball,  volley-ball,  long-ball  and 
drive-ball.  We  have  confined  our  discussion  to  more 
highly  organized  games,  since  Mr.  Johnson  in  his 
excellent  work  on  "  Education  by  Games  "  includes 
kindergarten  and  primary  games  and  brings  the  dis- 
cussion up  to  the  point  from  which  we  have  started. 
Throughout  we  have  maintained  the  educational  point 
of  view  which  we  believe  is  the  only  plane  upon  which 
athletics  for  women  can  be  wisely  conducted. 

It  may  seem  in  our  emphasis  on  athletics  as  a  train- 
ing for  citizenship  and  as  a  part  of  general  educa- 
tion, that  we  have  neglected  their  physical  value  to 
the  individual.  While  we  do  not  underestimate  this 
value,  we  believe  that  it  is  more  generally  recognized 
and  that  there  are  so  many  advocates  in  its  favor 
that  it  is  unnecessary  to  emphasize  it  here. 

Although  we  have  restricted  this  discussion  to 
women,  our  experience  in  teaching  boys  shows  tiie 
need  in  this  field  to  be  hardly  less  apparent.  Among 
men  the  commercial  and  competitive  spirit  pre- 
dominates and  there  is  only  a  dawning  conscious- 
ness on  the  part  of  comparatively  few  men  instruct- 
ors of  the  larger  educational  worth  of  athletics. 
Notwithstanding  this,  athletics  as  now  used  do  tend 
to  develop  among  men,  in  some  measure,  a  group  con- 
sciousness as  well  as  admirable  personal  qualities. 
This  goes  far  to  show  that  they  possess  an  intrinsic 
educational  value. 


FOREWORD  vii 

Many  instructors  who  sent  us  information  and  sug- 
gestions requested  that  they  should  not  be  quoted. 
Owing  to  these  requests  and  the  rivalry  existing 
among  many  schools  and  instructors,  we  have  omitted 
many  of  the  references.  It  has  not  been  our  purpose 
to  criticise  any  school  or  instructor  as  such,  but  to 
present  the  data  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  them  gener- 
ally useful,  and  suggestive  to  schools,  instructors, 
parents,  players  and  those  interested  in  community 
welfare. 

We  have  included  a  technical  discussion  of  some 
highly  organized  games  now  widely  used  by  women 
because  there  are  some  who  would  be  willing  to  teach 
athletics  as  a  part  of  general  education  if  there  were 
a  way  to  master  the  details. 

We  acknowledge  a  deep  indebtedness  to  the  in- 
structors, schools  and  organizations  that  have  co- 
operated by  answering  the  questionnaire,  making  sug- 
gestions, and  sending  us  infonnation  about  their 
equipment,  facilities  and  systems  of  work ;  also  to  the 
social  workers  who  have  gone  over  the  material  and 
have  made  clearer  its  practical  social  significance. 

The  Authors. 

The  Univeksity  of  Chicago. 


CONTENTS 


Paht  I 
VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

CHAPTEK  PAGE 

I.    Citizenship  axd   Social   Educaxiox        ...         3 

IL     Educational   Value   of   Athletics  ...       19 

IIL     IxsTUucTOHs — TiiEiu    Respoxslbility    and   Train- 
ing   45 


Pakt    II 
PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

IV.     Athletics     in     Secondary     Schools       ...       69 

V.     Athletics  in  Universities  and  Colleges  96 

VI.     Athletics   in    Political   and   Social    Organiza- 
tions        110 

VII.     Competitive   and   Public   Gajies       ....     149 

Part   III 

METHODS  OF   INSTRUCTION 

VIII.     General  Training  and  Contests      ....  165 

IX.     Basketball 179 

X.     Indoor  Baseball 212 

XI.     Field    Hockey 237 

INDEX 265 


PART  I 
VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 


CHAPTER   I 
CITIZENSHu-  ii.Mj  sutixU.  EDUCATION 

Z0/44 

HowEVEE  much  individuals  may  differ  in  their 
opinions  as  to  the  position  of  women  in  society,  their 
rights,  their  capabihties,  their  future  activities,  or 
the  thousand  and  one  other  phases  of  their  lives  and 
character  which  form  topics  for  discussion  of  seem- 
ingly never-ending  interest,  there  are  certain  existing 
conditions  and  well-defined  tendencies  in  society  to- 
day which  cannot  be  properly  met  by  opinions  or 
prejudices  but  which  demand  and  should  receive  ju- 
dicial analysis,  and  to  meet  which  women  need  to  be 
adequately  prepared. 

Perhaps  the  most  significant  change  in  society's 
demand  upon  women  to-day  is  the  substitution  of  co- 
operative effort  for  individualistic  effort  and  the  de- 
velopment of  group  consciousness  beyond  the  family 
circle.  This  has  been  a  gradual  process,  so  gradual 
that  many  women  in  the  more  secluded  walks  of  life 
do  not  see  the  need  of  a  change  in  the  training  of 
women  to  meet  a  demand,  the  full  meaning  of  which 
they  fail  to  grasp. 

Social  Responsibility  of  Women. — The  most  con- 
spicuous change  has  been  in  the  industrial  world.  In 
1900  more  than  5^000,000  women  were  found  engaged 
in  gainful  occupations.    This  by  no  means  includes  the 


4  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

many  who  earn  money  in  their  own  homes  or  those 
who  supplement  their  small  incomes  in  one  way  or 
another.  Neither  does  it  include  the  many  children 
who  are  at  work.  This  entrance  into  the  industrial 
world  creates  a  more  (■oiri])l(  \  environment,  requires 
more  rapid  adjlistiiicnt,  :i..ii  «ft)ovc  all  increases 
greatly  the  necessity  for  co-ooerative  work,  outside 
the  home. 

The  extension  of  the  property  rights  of  women  in 
many  of  the  states,  and  the  many  estates  held  by 
them,  have  enlarged  the  group  of  women  investors, 
capitalists  and  employers.  This  has  created  for  them 
broader  social  responsibilities  and  the  necessity  for 
group  judgments.  Such  unavoidable  responsibility 
is  seen  in  the  wide  use  which  women  necessarily  make 
of  middlemen.  Their  interests  and  activities  are  so 
varied  that  numerous  agents  are  employed  to  carry 
out  their  orders.  This  removal  from  the  result  of 
their  acts — for  instance,  when  they  receive  rents  from 
tenements  but  know  nothing  of  conditions  existing 
in  them  because  of  their  entire  reliance  upon  agents — 
frequently  makes  them  "  tolerators  but  not  neces- 
sarily practitioners  "  of  anti-social  acts. 

The  political  field  also  has  been  greatly  widened. 
Not  only  have  women  the  franchise  in  several  of  the 
states,  but  in  others  they  vote  upon  educational  ques- 
tions and  other  public  matters  such  as  taxation.  The 
number  who  now  hold  political  positions  of  trust  or 
who  are  engaged  in  lines  of  activity  which  have  a 
far-reaching  influence  upon  political  affairs  is  greatly 
increased. 


CITIZENSHIP  AND  SOCIAL  EDUCATION      5 

In  the  field  of  social  service,  including  professional 
charity  and  philanthropy,  the  ranks  are  filled  with 
women  and  many  others  are  seeking  positions.  Re- 
ligious activity  in  many  of  its  forms  of  ministration 
is  increasingly  in  the  hands  of  women. 

Social  life  is  no  longer  limited  to  the  entertainment 
of  friends  or  families,  the  self-culture  club  or  simple 
home  function.  These  are  varied  in  a  thousand  ways 
by  more  impersonal  and  highly  organized  social  ac- 
tivities, such  as  card  parties  with  their  competitive 
element;  club-meetings  with  their  co-operative  ele- 
ment; civic  activities  with  their  public  welfare  ele- 
ment ;  and  auxiliary  organizations  for  great  state  and 
national  movements.  Mothers,  teachers  and  workers 
all  have  some  form  of  organized  effort  which  calls 
for  co-operation. 

This  increased  participation  in  industrial  life  and 
in  public  affairs  and  variation  of  social  responsibility 
tends  at  the  present  time  to  make  women  take  life  too 
seriously,  live  too  strenuously,  and  results  in  a  diminu- 
tion of  rest  and  relaxation.  The  play-spirit  is  yield- 
ing to  the  work-spirit  and  the  loss  of  individual  play- 
spirit  has  not  yet  found  its  counterpart  in  the  pro- 
portionate increase  of  the  group  play-spirit — an  es- 
sential thing  to  the  best  social  activity  and  balance. 

Even  in  the  home  the  demand  for  co-operative  work 
is  growing.  In  the  cities  the  complexities  have  so  in- 
creased that  its  successful  maintenance  means  de- 
pendence upon  others  in  a  thousand  forms — for  serv- 
ice, for  food,  for  protection ;  and  in  return  additional 
community  burdens  are  laid  upon  the  housewife — ad- 


6  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES     - 

justment  to  her  workers,  maintenance  of  a  higher 
standard  of  living  and  observance  of  laws  which  are 
made  for  the  equal  protection  of  all.  The  housewife 
in  the  apartment  or  tenement  cannot  make  as  much 
noise,  or  dispose  of  her  garbage,  or  use  her  fire- 
escapes,  as  she  will,  without  reference  to  the  comfort 
of  others.  Moreover,  such  are  the  problems  pre- 
sented by  our  cities  that  many  live  in  the  closer  union 
of  the  co-operative  home  or  apartment  hotel  where  an 
even  greater  degree  of  co-operation  is  required. 

But  it  is  not  only  girls  who  marry  or  who  earn 
their  own  living  who  are  confronted  with  a  greater 
necessity  for  adjustment.  There  is  in  every  com- 
munity a  small  group  of  girls  who  have  just  a  bit  too 
much  money  to  need  to  work  for  a  living  and  too  much 
family  to  make  it  easy  to  become  useful.  Many  of 
these  have  been  well  educated  and  along  with  abundant 
vitality  possess  the  spirit  of  wishing  to  do  or  become 
something  worth  while  from  the  point  of  view  of 
efficiency  in  the  community.  Parents,  whose  goal 
for  their  girls  is  so  frequently  marriage  or  social 
success,  cannot  understand  this  new  community  sense 
which  is  a  part  of  the  spirit  of  the  age  and  the  result- 
ing moral,  social  and  economic  waste  is  a  serious  loss 
to  community  life.  There  is  enough  to  do,  but  neither 
the  training  nor  freedom  with  which  to  do  it. 

The  point  is  that  women  can  no  longer  live  in  such 
a  way  that  they  influence  only  their  own  homes,  family 
and  immediate  circle.  The  mother  who  chats  with 
a  few  neighbors  over  a  cup  of  tea  has  not  the  influ- 
ence that  the  club-woman  has  when  she  gambles  with 


CITIZENSHIP  AND  SOCIAL  EDUCATION      7 

a  party  of  fifty  or  a  hundred;  or  who  attends  huge 
conventions  and  runs  off  elections;  or  that  the  busi- 
ness and  professional  woman  has  who  meets  hundreds 
of  patrons  and  must  often  decide  their  moral  as  well 
as  business  problems ;  or  that  the  thousands  of  clerks 
and  stenographers  have  who  form  a  part  of  the  mesh 
of  industrial  and  political  life;  or  that  the  factory 
worker  has  when  she  toils  with  a  thousand  others. 

Upon  the  completion  of  her  education,  the  girl  thus 
has  no  longer  the  simple  choice  of  marriage,  teaching 
or  missionary  work.  She  has  before  her  a  wide  range 
of  vocations  and  a  great  array  of  opportunities  in 
almost  every  field — all  of  which  offer  her  a  livelihood 
and  practically  all  of  which,  while  demanding  indi- 
vidual efficiency,  demand  increasingly  the  power  to 
work  harmoniously  and  effectively  with  the  group. 

Influence  upon  Social  Control. — Irrespective  of 
women's  occupational  opportunities,  broad  as  these 
are  becoming,  there  are  certain  forms  of  social  con- 
trol which  they  help  to  create  and  in  a  great  degree 
to  sustain.  Such  are  the  customs,  behefs  and  tradi- 
tions which  make  society  stable.  The  growing  pub- 
licity given  to  the  doings  of  women  has  largely  in- 
creased their  power  over  the  various  forms  of  social 
control  and  both  by  suggestion  and  example  each 
individual  appeals  to  and  influences  a  much  wider 
circle  than  in  the  past. 

Chief  among  these  forms  of  social  control  is  public 
opinion,  which  even  more  than  laws  makes  for  the 
happiness  or  unhappiness  of  individuals  and  for  the 
welfare  or  disadvantage  of  the  community.     When 


8  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

women  judge  within  a  prejudiced,  circumscribed 
horizon,  as  where  they  condemn  murderers  but  not 
adulterators  of  food  or  officials  of  a  trust  who  put  up 
the  price  of  ice  so  that  babies  in  tenements  die  for 
lack  of  it,  they  fail  to  see  that  they  are  condemning 
the  lesser  rather  than  the  greater  offender,  simply 
because  the  connection  of  cause  and  effect  is  not  so 
apparent  in  the  latter  cases. 

While  women  as  a  rule  are  indifferent  to  any  form 
of  morality  other  than  virtue  in  their  own  sex,  small 
wonder  is  it  that  infractions  of  public  morality  are 
slowly  and  uncertainly  punished  by  public  opinion. 
It  does  not  change  the  consequences  that  women's 
false  social  judgments  are  due  not  so  much  to  evil 
thoughts  and  feelings  as  to  perplexities  due  to  incom- 
prehension of  the  given  elements  in  a  situation  or 
to  a  defective  sense  of  justice.  There  can  be  no 
efficient  social  control  by  public  opinion  without  a 
deep  sense  of  justice.  Sympathy  has  long  been 
accepted  as  a  substitute  for  this  in  women.  But  the 
increasingly  varied  demands  made  upon  them  shows  it 
to  be  an  inadequate  substitute.  Mr.  E.  A.  Ross  well 
states  this :  * 

"  It  is  obedience  that  articulates  the  solid,  bony 
framework  of  social  order;  sympathy  is  but  the  connect- 
ive tissue.  As  well  build  a  skeleton  out  of  soft  fiber  as 
construct  social  order  out  of  sympathies. 

"  Not  friendly  aid,  but  reliable  conduct,  is  the  corner- 
stone of  great  organization.  Now,  sympathy  will  stay 
the  hand  of  the  wife-beater,  but  it  will  not  spurn  the 
bribe  or  spare  the   lie.      It  will  snatch   a   child   from 

'Ross  :  "  Social  Control,"  p.  12. 


CITIZENSHIP  AND  SOCIAL  EDUCATION      9 

trampling  hoofs,  but  it  will  not  keep  the  watchman 
awake,  or  hold  the  contractor  to  the  terms  of  his  agree- 
ment. It  will  nerve  the  rescuing  fireman,  but  it  will  not 
stimulate  the  official  to  do  his  duty.  It  will  relieve  the 
beggar,  but  it  will  not  stop  the  adulteration  of  goods. 
It  will  man  the  lifeboat,  but  it  will  not  lead  men  to  give 
just  weight,  to  make  true  returns  of  their  property,  or 
to  slay  their  country's  enemies.  ...  A  person  may  be 
tender-hearted,  and  yet  do  vast  harm  by  dodging 
quarantine,  or  smuggling  in  coolies,  or  falsifying  news, 
or  stuffing  ballot  boxes.  .  .  . 

"  Sympathy,  then,  breaks  down  at  just  the  point  where 
we  are  increasingly  in  need  of  security.  For  our  social 
development  is  marked  by  the  progressive  substitution 
of  f,xed  impersonal  relations  for  transient  personal  rela- 
tions. .  .  .  With  the  advent  of  the  time  when  the  most 
momentous  actions  will  present  no  more  obvious  relation 
to  their  remote  social  consequences  than  does  the  finger- 
ing of  the  train  despatcher  to  the  fate  of  distant  pas- 
sengers, it  will,  no  doubt,  be  realized  that  intermittent 
sentiment  is  unable  to  cope  with  the  problem  of  subordi- 
nation, and  that  other  motives  must  be  called  in." 

Relation  to  Rules  of  the  Game. — ^Women  then, 
whether  approved  or  not,  are  striving  for  success  in 
almost  every  field  of  life  and  are  of  growing  impor- 
tance in  making  forms  of  social  control.  Every 
field,  like  every  game,  has  its  established  rules  and 
regulations, — be  it  domestic,  social,  professional  or 
industrial.  The  fact  that  women  have  had  no  large 
direct  part  in  formulating  these  rules  does  not  excuse 
them  from  sustaining  them.  It  is  a  mistake  to  think 
that  the  selfish  individualist,  whether  man  or  woman, 
can  enter  any  field  or  game  and  play  fair  without  a 
knowledge  of  the  rules  and  penalties  and  without 
training.     The  welfare  of  society  depends  upon  the 


10  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

rules  being  upheld  or  changed  only  with  the  full 
knowledge  of  all.  Competition  is  the  prevailing 
spirit  and  the  development  of  co-operation  is  the 
problem  in  every  field  of  activity  in  which  society  is 
concerned.  Good  clean  success  requires  fair,  economi- 
cal and  co-operative  rules  in  order  that  players  may 
be  equal  before  them  and  individual  waste  may  be 
avoided  through  team  work.  This  being  true,  is  there 
any  reason  why  women,  in  their  respective  fields  of 
activity  and  thought,  should  not  abide  by  the  rules 
of  the  game  or  contribute  to  their  enforcement  and 
improvement.''  If  they  are  defective  in  the  qualities 
which  make  for  rapid  adjustment,  is  it  not  reason- 
able to  include  in  their  education  such  training  as 
will  increase  their  social  understanding  and  efficiency.'' 

Personal  Morality  and  Social  Ethics. — What  is 
the  need.'*  Social  problems  to-day  are  ethical  rather 
than  economic.  There  is  enough  food  and  shelter 
for  all,  such  is  our  control  over  the  forces  of  nature, 
if  only  some  of  the  unethical  interferences,  pro- 
hibitions and  inequahties  be  removed.  It  is  in  the 
matter  of  social  ethics  that  women  are  most  unde- 
veloped and  uninstructed.  Their  sense  of  morality  is 
personal  rather  than  social  and  passive  rather  than 
active.  To  be  virtuous  is  to  be  good.  Vice  and 
crime  may  be  a  matter  of  gossip,  but  their  treatment 
as  problems  is  considered  to  be  proper  only  for  men. 
Personal  duty  obscures  civic  duty  and  there  is  an 
absence  of  social  courage  when  comnmnity  interest 
conflicts  with  personal  comfort. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  standard  of  per- 


CITIZENSHIP  AND  SOCIAL  EDUCATION      11 

sonal  morality,  based  upon  virtue,  is  higher  among 
women  than  among  men  and  it  has  long  been  the  prac- 
tice to  excuse  many  of  the  anti-social  acts  of  women 
so  long  as  they  remain  virtuous.  But  greater  indi- 
vidual freedom,  without  a  commensurate  increase  of 
the  sense  of  responsibility  for  the  welfare  of  the  com- 
munity, has  led  to  an  alarming  increase  of  im- 
morality. Among  races  where  the  percentage  was 
small,  this  has  become  common  when  they  have 
come  to  our  American  cities  to  live.  The  leisure  class 
with  not  enough  outlet  for  its  energy,  and  industrial 
workers  with  too  much  of  a  drain  upon  their  energy, 
both  show  the  increase.  It  thus  becomes  clear  that 
this  problem  of  immorality  is  no  longer  one  for  men 
to  solve  alone  or  where  the  single  standard  of  per- 
sonal morality  will  prove  all-sufficient.  The  tempta- 
tions present  themselves  in  a  hundred  varied,  attract- 
ive forms,  half  hidden  under  general  industrial  or 
social  conditions,  and  the  training  of  the  girl,  which 
should  enable  her  to  understand  and  guard  against 
force,  brutality  and  lust,  does  not  readily  recognize 
these  in  their  modern  insidious  forms. 

The  Non-Ethical  Group. — The  socially  non- 
ethical  group  includes  women  in  every  station  of  life. 
There  is  the  social  representative  of  the  family,  who 
maintains  an  elaborate  establishment  or  who  is  hos- 
pitable, chiefly  in  order  to  surpass  a  rival.  There  are 
the  mothers,  wives  and  daughters  of  some  of  the  great 
financiers,  who  enjoy  the  advantages  of  wealth  won 
under  unfair,  uneconomic  and  non-co-operative  rules. 
Women  are  frequently  the  cause  of  the  pursuit  of 


12  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

great  wealth  and  accept  it,  without  sense  of  responsi- 
bihty,  without  inquiry  or  protest,  indeed  often  with- 
out interest,  so  long  as  they  are  comfortable  and  their 
husbands'  reputations  remain  unsullied.  There  are 
women  who  inherit  property  which  they  administer 
without  any  sense  of  social  obligation,  indeed  without 
any  desire  to  know  whence  it  came  or  whither  it  goes. 
There  are  others  who  enter  professional  life  and  be- 
come a  part  of  bitter  professional  jealousies  and  strife 
and  think  that  an  increase  of  practice  constitutes 
success,  whether  won  by  fair  rules  or  foul.  The  field 
of  politics  and  government  service  also  contains  many 
who  belong  to  this  group.  Among  these,  wages  and 
individual  preferment  are  placed  above  service  to  the 
community  and  they  do  not  hesitate  to  recommend 
themselves  and  strive  for  positions  of  honor  and  trust 
which  should  be  the  unsought  gift  of  the  public. 
There  are  working  women  who  take  the  places  of  their 
fellow-workers  at  lower  wages  or  accept  wages  and 
conditions  which  compel  them  to  supplement  their 
earnings  in  doubtful  ways,  because  they  work  for 
themselves  alone  rather  than  for  the  cause  of  working 
women. 

The  Non-Ethical  Organization. — Not  only  this, 
but  women  combine  in  organizations  .for  which  they 
set  the  standard  and  which  they  alone  maintain,  and 
there  are  thus  formed  socially  non-ethical  organiza- 
tions. Clubs  of  this  order  are  those  which  exist  sim- 
ply for  the  entertainment  of  their  members.  Many  are 
willing  to  pay  to  have  a  speaker  interrupt  his  busy 
hours  of  social  service  to  come  and  entertain  them 


CITIZENSHIP  AND  SOCIAL  EDUCATION      13 

with  "  stories  of  humanity  " ;  but  by  no  means  with 
the  idea  of  doing  anything  or  of  sharing  the  burden, 
as  their  shocked  expressions  reveal  when  they  are 
asked  to  render  active  service.  There  are  other  clubs 
whose  public-spirited  leaders  do  the  work,  while 
the  members  pay  their  dues  and  only  come  to  hear 
about  the  "  club's  work  "  at  special  and  annual  meet- 
ings. There  are  others  which  undertake  public  work 
but  cherish  it  chiefly  for  the  credit  or  reputation  it 
brings  to  the  organization.  Such  jealously  guard 
their  "  own  interests."  The  bridge  whist  club  which 
utilizes  time  and  energy  out  of  proportion  to  the 
rights  and  needs  of  society,  and  fosters  the  gambling 
spirit,  falls  into  this  group  of  organizations.  When 
it  averages  from  four  to  ten  hours  of  play  daily,  the 
same  number  of  hours  required  of  working  women  in 
order  that  they  may  even  live,  society  has  a  right  to 
be  interested  in  the  consequent  waste. 

Non-Ethical  Acts  and  Attitude. — The  effects  of 
socially  non-ethical  acts  are  not  so  easily  detected.  A 
little  disparaging  remark  in  an  efficient  democracy 
may  put  some  one  out  of  the  game  or  limit  her  oppor- 
tunities. A  lie  may  place  some  one  in  a  position 
where  her  efforts  become  non-productive.  A  cheat 
may  displace  a  better  person  and  retard  progress. 
Never  having  a  good  word  for  any  one  else  may  dis- 
courage others  from  working  for  humanity.  Dis- 
regard of  the  rights  of  others  and  selfishness  set  an 
example  productive  of  endless  evil.  Jealousy  may  dis- 
tort the  whole  horizon  and  break  the  best  of  fellowship 
bonds.     Cowardice  may  leave  wrongs  unrighted  and 


14     VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

make  friendship  a  mere  gainful  occupation.  And 
when  enough  women  are  daily  guilty  of  these  things 
and  they  are  distorted  and  magnified,  there  is  created 
an  atmosphere  of  cheating,  lying,  suspicion  and  un- 
fairness, which  vitally  affects  every  interest — the 
home,  society  and  the  nation,  for  these  can  be  no  bet- 
ter than  the  citizens  who  make  them. 

The  socially  non-ethical  attitude,  quite  as  much  as 
the  act,  makes  possible  the  continuance  of  many  con- 
ditions detrimental  to  the  welfare  of  society.  One 
cause  of  the  slow  growth  of  social  ethics  is  the  indi- 
vidualistic attitude  of  women  and  their  interpreta- 
tion of  Christian  teaching  along  the  narrow  path  of 
individual  salvation  rather  than  as  an  injunction  to 
lose  one's  life  in  order  to  find  it  more  abundantly 
through  effort  in  behalf  of  the  community.  Within 
the  family,  fairness,  co-operation  and  unselfishness 
are  kept  uppermost  by  the  ties  of  affection.  But 
once  outside  each  member  tends  to  become  a  bird  of 
prey.  The  attitude  is,  what  can  I  get  out  of  to-day, 
or  out  of  some  one  else,  or  what  for  my  family,  with 
little  thought  of  what  can  be  put  into  the  day  for  the 
benefit  of  the  larger  group.  Personal  moral  excel- 
lence may  become  so  narrow  as  to  be  socially  non- 
ethical,  and  while  such  a  citizen  may  rank  as  "  good  " 
she  no  longer  fulfils  the  requirements  of  American 
citizenship.  If  those  who  live  in  good  homes  and  who 
know  the  value  of  fresh  air,  sanitation  and  cleanli- 
ness, do  not  lead  the  crusade  against  bad  tenements, 
who  will?  If  those  who  know  the  effect  on  children 
of  hard  hours  of  labor  do  not  fight  for  child  labor  laws 


CITIZENSHIP  AND  SOCIAL  EDUCATION      15 

and  the  education  of  ignorant  parents,  who  will?  And 
if  American-bom  women,  with  all  the  advantages  of 
their  native  country,  do  not  lend  a  hand  to  their  inmii- 
grant  sisters,  who  will  make  them  into  good  citizens? 
Women  do  not  protest  against  adulterated  foods  and 
medicines  because  they  do  not  happen  to  use  them. 
They  do  not  inquire  into  the  conditions  in  garment 
factories  because  cheapness  is  their  standard  or  they 
can  afford  a  dressmaker  and  tailor.  They  are  not 
conscientious  about  their  hours  of  shopping  because 
they  have  no  experience  as  clerks  and  have  not  enough 
imagination  to  put  themselves  in  another's  place. 
Irreproachable  as  their  characters  may  be  in  their 
own  homes  and  circle,  is  their  social  obligation  met  so 
long  as  they  are  indifferent  to  the  welfare  of  the 
group  ? 

There  are  many  who  mistake  benevolent  and  philan- 
thropic impulses  for  social  ethics.  To  give  to  others 
out  of  an  abundance  or  even  at  a  sacrifice  may  be  an 
impulse  aroused  through  sympathy,  sense  of  duty  or 
sometimes  through  a  desire  for  self-laudation  and  for 
personal  power.  The  code  of  social  ethics,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  founded  on  justice  and  equality  and  has  no 
more  sense  of  giving  than  of  receiving,  no  admission 
of  superiority,  no  attitude  of  judgment,  no  conscious- 
ness of  magnanimity,  no  rehance  on  patronage.  One 
is  highly  personal,  the  other  impersonal;  one  is  indi- 
vidualistic and  the  other  social.  Furthermore,  the 
benevolent  person  does  not  necessarily  see  inequalities 
and  unfair  application  of  rules  as  does  the  socially 
ethical  person.     Social  ethics  is  essentially  the  result 


16  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

of  team  work  according  to  the  prescribed  rules  of  the 
game,  each  player  being  equal,  fair  and  co-operative, 
so  that  his  team  or  class  may  also  be  these ;  each  one 
being  a  necessary  factor  in  the  group  and  realizing 
that  the  whole  group  suffers  if  the  enforcement  of 
rules  and  penalties  is  not  the  same  for  all,  and  each 
being  willing  to  insist  upon  such  enforcement. 

Social  ethics  can  only  be  realized  in  a  small  meas- 
ure through  legislation.  Stealing,  homicide  and  arson 
are  crimes  which  are  dramatically  punishable.  These 
offenses  are  plainly  immoral.  But  socially  non- 
ethical  acts  may  affect  society  as  disastrously  as  does 
theft  or  homicide,  though  no  legal  punishment  is  pro- 
vided. The  most  serious  crimes,  judged  by  results 
upon  the  whole  community,  are  not  necessarily  on  the 
statute  books,  and  the  awakening  social  conscience  has 
begun  to  perceive  this  truth.  Buying  supplies  (and 
women  are  the  chief  buyers)  made  under  sweat- 
shop conditions  makes  it  possible  for  many  lives  to 
be  lost  yearly  because  the  workers  are  under-nour- 
ished. Respectable  owners  of  houses  which  are  used 
as  dens  of  immorality  make  it  possible  for  thousands 
of  young  girls  to  be  led  astray  each  year.  Hiring 
a  lawyer  to  help  evade  a  law  which  was  drawn  to 
serve  a  great  public  purpose,  but  which  has  a  techni- 
cal flaw,  may  leave  a  whole  group  unprotected  while 
securing  the  escape  of  one  individual.  Refusal  by 
protective  organizations  to  take  in  penniless  and 
homeless  women  at  night  because  they  bring  no  refer- 
ences or  because  it  is  in  violation  of  unwise  rules, 
needs  no  statute  to  define  its  consequences. 


CITIZENSHIP  AND  SOCIAL  EDUCATION      17 

While  it  may  be  granted  that  the  social  conscious- 
ness and  conscience  of  women  are  not  proportionate  to 
the  needs  of  society  and  while  it  may  be  admitted  that 
much  of  their  effort  will  for  some  time  remain  indi- 
vidualistic and  their  organized  effort  characterized 
by  disorder  and  waste,  there  is  no  need  to  be  discour- 
aged or  to  neglect  social  education.  Movements  and 
organizations  undertaken  by  women  are  not  the  only 
ones  that  are  content  with  attacking  superficial  rather 
than  fundamental  evils,  with  using  air  guns  where 
only  cannon  will  suffice,  and  which  are  so  lacking  in 
courage  that  they  retard  civilization  by  a  million  pin- 
pricks rather  than  by  boldly  destroying  and  rebuild- 
ing. The  socially  non-ethical  groups  and  acts  are 
human  imperfections,  and  we  have  emphasized  them 
in  women  because  it  is  their  position,  influence 
and  activities  to  which  we  have  confined  our  atten- 
tion, and  because  we  believe  so  deeply  in  women's 
importance  as  factors  in  group  expression  and 
intelligence. 

This  glimpse  of  the  unlovely  picture  of  the  socially 
non-ethical  group  has  a  very  bright  reverse  side  which 
we  wish  might  be  presented  in  as  much  detail,  for 
it  holds  out  abundant  hope  for  the  future.  The 
increasing  number  of  social  moral  leaders  among 
women,  and  the  growing  intelligence,  interest  and 
activities  of  the  mass,  many  of  whom  are  consciously 
upholding  the  rules  of  the  game  in  the  group 
interest,  give  the  courage  and  faith  necessary 
to  present  the  less  hopeful  conditions.  There  are 
many  forces  at  work  in  the  uplift,  and  the  response, 


18  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

if  still  lacking  in  power,  is  sincere  and  enduring. 
This  in  itself  refutes  any  conclusion  that  the  present 
position  of  women  as  group  factors  is  a  question  of 
incapacity  rather  than  of  ignorance  and  lack  of 
opportunity. 


CHAPTER  II 
EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  ATHLETICS 

Obviously  the  demands  now  made  upon  women  are 
different  from  those  of  fifty  or  twenty-five  years  ago, 
when  home  and  social  duties  constituted  the  chief 
claim.  We  hope  the  preceding  chapter  has  made  the 
need  for  training  clear.  The  question  is,  then,  does 
the  education  of  the  day  supply  such  training  in  ade- 
quate measure? 

Social  Education. — The  president  of  one  of  the 
city  vacation  school  systems  says :  ^ 

"  Our  first  sin  of  omission  is  not  far  to  seek.  It  is 
our  systematic  neglect  of  girls.  How  few  have  looked 
with  comprehending  eyes  upon  the  less  aggressive  com- 
panions of  boys  and  seen  their  problem  also?  Modern 
city  conditions,  overcrowding,  lack  of  suitable  places  for 
play  and  for  quiet  normal  living  are  more  dangerous  for 
girls  than  for  boys.  They  succumb  more  readily  to 
group  influences.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  their 
modesty  and  self-poise  in  the  constant  mass  living  to 
which  they  are  subjected.  They  early  lose  their  desire 
for  play.  Their  imagination  is  over  stimulated  in  the 
one  direction  and  becomes  nearly  atrophied  in  all  others. 
They  are  sentimental,  clinging,  affectionate  or  hard, 
cynical  and  worldly  wise,  but  nearly  always  old  before 
they  are  young.  Without  far  more  wisdom  than  we 
have    hitherto    shown    in   their    education,    their    moral 

*  Report  on  Pittsburgh  Vacation  Schools,  1906. 
19 


20         .  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

nature  will  remain  undeveloped,  unequal  to  the  fearful 
strain  of  the  temptations  to  which  they  are  subjected. 
We  now  follow  the  line  of  least  resistance — give  them 
the  sweet  sentimental  books  they  like  to  read,  encourage 
them  to  sit  for  hours  prosaically  sewing  and  allow  them 
to  gather  in  gossiping  groups  for  the  play  hour,  nor 
realize,  because  it  all  works  so  smoothly,  that  we  have 
taken  the  wrong  course  in  every  particular.  Every- 
where the  passive,  the  conventional,  the  formal.  They 
will  have  need  of  bravery  in  the  fight  which  is  before 
them.  Has  it  ever  occurred  to  us  to  help  them  develop 
the  sterner  virtues?  Have  we  substituted  new  ideas  for 
the  dominating  emotional  ones?  Have  we  created  in 
them  the  passion  for  a  larger  life  and  sense  of  the  social 
order  which  gives  them  mental  and  moral  poise?  Have 
we  tried  to  develop  in  them  a  healthy  freedom  and  alert- 
ness of  mind  and  body  ?  " 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  criticise  present  educa- 
tional methods  but  rather  to  suggest  a  way  in  which 
they  may  be  so  extended  that  girls  may  receive  a 
better  social  education,  thereby  increasing  group  con- 
sciousness and  responsibility  by  a  sympathetic  interest 
in  and  understanding  of  their  play-fellows  and  fellow- 
workmen.  The  demand  for  social  education  is  met 
now,  so  far  as  it  is  met  at  all,  by  instruction  along 
purely  intellectual  lines,  by  courses  in  economics, 
sociology,  politics,  etc.,  in  what  one  might  call  the 
technique  rather  than  in  the  spirit,  and  little  conscious 
effort  is  made  to  increase  social  efficiency  by  develop- 
ing and  training  the  spirit  itself.  We  believe  that 
athletic  games — the  spontaneous  yet  directed  ex- 
pression of  the  play  spirit — are  peculiarly  fitted,  if 
intelligently  used,  to  increase  social  efficiency  through 
the  development  of  the  right  social  spirit.    That  this 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  ATHLETICS     21 

efficiency  falls  short  of  the  need  is,  in  a  measure,  due 
to  some  of  the  limitations  placed  upon  the  education 
of  women,  rather  than  to  incapacity.  As  a  result  of 
her  studies  upon  the  differences  in  sex,  Dr.  Helen 
Thompson  says: 

"  Psychological  differences  of  sex  seem  to  be  largely 
due,  not  to  differences  of  average  capacity,  nor  to  dif- 
ferences in  type  of  mental  activity,  but  to  differences  in 
the  social  influence  brought  to  bear  on  the  developing 
individual  from  early  infancy  to  adult  years.  The 
question  of  the  future  development  of  the  entire  life  of 
women  is  one  of  social  necessities  and  ideals  rather  than 
of  inborn  psychological  characteristics  of  sex."  ^ 

Neglect  of  Athletic  Training. — ^Among  these  lim- 
itations on  education,  none  is  more  conspicuous  than 
that  of  athletics,  which  have  received  but  little  recog- 
nition as  a  character  builder  or  as  a  factor  in  group 
training.  Games  are  given  a  place  in  the  kinder- 
garten and  in  the  primary  grades,  but  beyond  these 
they  are  not  only  but  little  recognized  but  are  fre- 
quently discouraged.  About  the  period  of  adoles- 
cence, the  tendency  is  to  prohibit  them  for  girls  at 
the  very  time  when  group  consciousness  may  be  best 
stimulated  or  on  the  other  hand  quite  lost  if  no  effort : 
be  made  to  develop  it. 

Where  organized  games  are  now  given  a  place  in 
educational  institutions,  emphasis  is  almost  invariably 
placed  upon  their  recreative  and  health  values.  Al- 
though our  inquiries  have  been  extensive,  we  have 
found  no  schools  where  they  form  a  part  of  the  edu- 

'  "  Mental  Traits  of  Sex,"  p.  183. 


82  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

cational  scheme  for  which  credit  is  given  and  where 
they  are  maintained  as  a  fundamental  part  of  the 
social  education  of  pupils. 

Relation  to  Pedagogy. — The  omission  of  athletics 
as  a  pedagogical  factor  seems  almost  inexplicable 
when  it  is  remembered  that  they  may  often  succeed 
where  other  activities  of  the  school  fail,  for  they  can 
be  used  to  develop  mentality  and  character  by  means 
of  a  discipline  which  other  pedagogical  methods  do 
not  possess.  Many  a  girl  cannot  attain  high  scholar- 
ship or  social  distinction,  yet  success  or  prominence 
may  be  necessary  to  her  best  development.  When  she 
is  sensitive,  shy  and  socially  unsought  or  unattractive, 
something  aside  from  books  or  society  is  needed. 
Such  a  girl  may  go  through  life  less  wearily  and 
monotonously  and  more  healthfully  if  she  has  had  the 
friends,  success  and  social  opportunity  which  ath- 
letics give. 

Influences  Which  Retard  the  Adoption  of  Ath- 
letics.— It  is  by  no  means  agreed  as  yet  that  women 
need  social  education,  so  their  training  is  still  largely 
individualistic.  There  also  exists  much  ignorance  on 
the  part  of  educators  as  to  both  the  value  and  pos- 
sibilities of  athletics  in  a  scheme  of  education.  Fur- 
thermore, the  majority  of  women  themselves  are  indif- 
ferent or  content.  Any  new  phase  of  education  has  to 
make  its  way  through  custom,  prejudice  and  tradition 
before  it  can  demonstrate  its  worth  or  win  recog- 
nition. Physical  education  is  now  making  its  way 
just  as  mental  education  had  to  make  its  way,  and  the 
opposition  is  as  vigorous  as  that  raised  against  the 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  ATHLETICS     23 

so-called  higher  education.  The  arguments  that  ath-  i; 
letics  injure  the  health  and  unsex  women  were  also// 
arrayed  against  their  demand  for  equality  of  oppor-f' 
tunity  in  mental  training.  There  have  been  some 
cases  of  over-play,  as  there  are  many  cases  of  over- 
study,  but  they  are  the  exception  and  not  the 
rule.  This  is  true,  notwithstanding  that  school  au- 
thorities have  not  only  refused  to  make  athletics  a 
proportionate  part  of  the  school  curriculum  or  have 
tabooed  it,  thereby  giving  it  an  undesirable  and 
dramatic  prominence,  but  have  also  declared  it  not 
to  be  a  subject  for  school  regulation ! 

One  of  the  greatest  bugaboos  that  have  been  raised 
and  have  much  retarded  the  use  of  athletics  as  a  part 
of  the  educational  system  is  the  fear  of  public  con- 
tests. In  the  light  of  actual  experience,  no  fear  has 
been  more  overworked.  Adequate  supervision  and 
training  along  educational  lines  have  demonstrated 
that  this  is  a  matter  entirely  within  the  control  of 
educators. 

A  number  of  schools  prohibit  all  organized  games 
because  there  are  no  so-called  "  girls'  games."  A 
"  girls'  game "  almost  invariably  means  the  reten- 
tion of  a  large  individualistic  element — ^a  thing  im- 
possible where  team  work  is  required.  This  attitude 
is  based  upon  two  erroneous  conceptions. 

First,  it  is  assumed  that  boys'  games,  when  used 
by  girls,  are  injurious  to  health,  deportment  and 
manners.     Injury  to  health  is  frequently  exagger-       , 
ated.     When  a  girl  is  hurt  in  a  game,  the  first  cry  is,  y^ 
"  No  more  games,"     The  number  of  accidents  to 


24  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

women  in  motors  is  a  hundred-fold  greater  and  no 
I  such  cry  is  raised.  Neither  do  the  casualties  result- 
ing from  unprotected  machinery  lead  to  greater  pro- 
tection of  women  than  men  workers.  Much  has  been 
written  and  said  about  injury  to  health,  but  we  have 
found  no  trustworthy  studies  upon  which  such  state- 
ments can  be  based.  In  this  age  of  facts,  opinions,  no 
matter  how  prominent  the  authorities  who  hold  them, 
must  carry  their  proof.  Facts  cannot  be  gathered  by 
persons  spurred  on  by  some  personal  grievance  or  by 
those  who  have  as  an  incentive  some  time-honored  pre- 
judice or  whose  point  of  view  is  obscured  by  social 
barriers.  Nor  are  they  to  be  gathered  by  groups  of 
society  women  whose  playground  is  the  drawing-room 
and  whose  sportsmanship  has  been  learned  in  pursuit 
of  fads.  A  study  to  determine  the  physical  and  so- 
cial advantages  and  disadvantages  of  organized  games 
includes  the  essentials  of  any  fair  test,  namely,  con- 
temporaneous, impartial  observations  by  experienced 
and  trained  persons,  during  a  representative  period, 
upon  a  representative  number  under  all  conditions  of 
training  and  supervision.  Such  a  study  will  be  more 
accurate  if  due  weight  be  given  to  hereditary  and  en- 
vironmental influences  and  if  it  includes  both  the  edu- 
cational and  recreative  features  of  games. 

Second,  it  is  also  assumed  by  the  advocates  of 
"  girls'  games  "  that  social  education  of  women  needs 
to  be  of  a  special  kind.  While  good  citizenship  re- 
quires varying  fonns  of  expression,  does  it  demand 
different  moral  qualities  of  men  and  women,  consid- 
ered as  citizens?    Are  not  unfairness,  selfishness,  lack 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  ATHLETICS     26 

of  honor,  failure  to  co-operate,  the  spirit  of  gain 
overshadowing  the  spirit  of  service,  disastrous  to  the 
group  irrespective  of  which  sex  practises  them?  Are 
not  public  opinion  and  social  judgments  injurious  or 
beneficial  according  to  enlightenment  rather  than  to 
sex? 

In  demanding  separate  games  for  girls,  one  in- 
structor writes :  "  Women  who  play  the  same  games 
as  men  are  constantly  compared  with  them;  and  a^j 
they  can  never  play  as  well,  they  suffer  by  compari- 
son." Nothing  shows  better  the  usual  shallow  con-| 
ception  of  the  value  of  games.  Are  women  discour-' 
aged  in  the  study  of  mathematics  because  they  so 
rarely  become  great  mathematicians ;  or  in  music  be- 
cause they  so  seldom  become  great  composers?  Is 
there  any  field  in  which  women  and  men  are  not  and 
will  not  always  be  compared?  This  matter  of  play- 
ing games  is  one  to  be  determined,  not  by  comparison 
of  the  sexes,  but  by  an  educational  principle.  If 
women  can  be  trained  well  enough  to  make  athletics 
beneficial  and  interesting  to  themselves,  then  it  is  good 
for  them  to  play ;  if  athletics  develop  in  women  quali- 
ties valuable  to  them  as  individuals  and  desirable  for 
them  to  possess  as  members  of  a  social  group,  then 
also  is  it  well  for  them  to  play. 

The  Standard  of  Athletics. — A  more  fundamental 
explanation  of  the  omission  of  athletics  is  the  pre- 
vailing standard.  Changes  in  both  aims  and  methods 
along  the  following  lines  are  imperative  before  they 
can  become  a  part  of  an  educational  system. 

Equal  consideration  and  emphasis  upon  the  educa- 


L/ 


26  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

tional  and  health  values  are  essential.  This  implies 
that  the  theory  as  well  as  practice  be  understood. 

Athletics  are  a  means  to  an  end,  not  an  end  in 
themselves,  and  are  to  be  conducted  for  the  good  of 
the  entire  number  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  making 
championship  teams  and  developing  record-breakers 
and  pennant-winners. 

To  be  educational  and  truly  health-giving,  athletics 
need  to  be  under  the  supervision  of  as  careful  and 
well-trained  instructors  as  is  any  other  branch  of 
education.  ^ 

The  spirit  to  be  striven  for  is  not  grim  determina- 
tion to  win  at  any  cost  but  the  exhilaration  and  joy 
of  playing.  Athletics  thus  become  social  and  not 
business  arrangements.  With  such  an  aim  competi- 
tive games  become  a  minor  factor. 

Advantages  of  Athletic  Training. — If  social  edu- 
cation by  means  of  such  a  standard  is  possible,  how  is 
it  to  be  accomplished.'' 

First,  athletics  give  a  sound  body,  good  co-ordina- 
tion, normal  impulses  and  control  of  the  appetites  and 
passions.  Any  social  consciousness  based  upon  these 
is  sound  to  start  with.  How  many  women  with  oppor- 
tunity and  leisure  to  obtain  these  can  claim  them? 
How  many  are  denied  them  by  the  demands  of  the 
industrial  and  social  systems  and  look  at  life  hope- 
lessly and  pessimistically,  lacking  the  energy  and  joy 
of  living  which  come  from  them.'' 

But  aside  from  this  health  value,  which  is  more  gen- 
erally recognized,  they  develop  on  the  mental  side 
keen  perceptions  and  complex  thought  processes;  on 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  ATHLETICS     27 

the  esthetic  side,  good  personal  habits  and  improved 
appearance ;  and  on  the  social  side,  a  group  conscious- 
ness, with  its  many  varying  expressions  of  gracious- 
ness  and  power. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enumerate  all  of  the  qualities 
developed  by  athletics.  It  will  be  remembered  that  in 
this  training  there  is  no  theory,  no  text-book,  no 
shady-nook  of  delusion  where  the  pupil  may  believe 
she  has  become  the  ideal  about  which  she  has  studied. 
The  organized  game  is  the  active  expression  of  one's 
natural  self,  the  life  in  many  essential  details  which  is 
lived  later  away  from  school  and  college  and  a  minia- 
ture of  the  democracy  which  envelops  one  in  later 
years. 

Individual  Qualities  and  Efficiency Some  of  the 

qualities  which  may  be  used  as  illustrations  of  mental 
improvement  due  to  athletics  are  observation,  atten- 
tion, concentration,  memory,  imagination,  initiation, 
judgment  and  will-power.  The  result  of  a  combined 
use  of  these  qualities  is  the  attainment  of  a  presence 
of  mind  and  self-control  in  which  accuracy,  coolness, 
quickness  and  good  judgment  are  called  into  use. 
Every  one  knows  how  essential  these  are  in  any  field 
of  activity  and  how  indispensable  they  are  to  effi- 
ciency. 

In  athletics  these  appear  to  be  most  rapidly  de- 
veloped by  the  various  games  of  ball,  from  the  simpler 
ones,  such  as  long-ball,  captain-ball,  push-ball,  volley- 
ball and  drive-ball,  up  to  those  requiring  fine  team 
work,  such  as  indoor  baseball,  basketball  and  hockey. 

When  girls  begin  to  play  organized  games,  even  as 


28  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

late  as  in  college,  they  frequently  have  their  minds  on 
something  else  and  lose  opportunities ;  their  attention 
is  easily  distracted  and  they  "  forget  to  play  " ;  they 
do  not  execute  conmiands  promptly ;  they  cannot  re- 
member rules  or  instructions ;  they  change  their  minds 
hal^  a  dozen  times  while  they  hold  the  ball ;  they  imi- 
tate rather  than  originate ;  or  they  "  play  wild." 
/  What  happens  as  the  result  of  athletic  training  is 
clearly  visible  at  an  early  period.  In  the  first  games 
of  basketball  few  players  guard  their  own  opponents. 
Every  one  minds  every  one's  else  business  and  criticises 
other  players.  No  one  can  be  relied  upon  and  what 
will  occur  in  an  emergency  cannot  be  foretold.  From 
this,  girls  grow  into  cool,  accurate,  steady  players, 
use  good  judgment,  are  ready  for  emergencies  and 
obtain  a  poise  which  cannot  be  easily  shaken.  These 
can  never  be  wholly  lost  except  through  degeneration 
or  disease  and  are  certainly  valuable  qualities  to  pos- 
sess in  moments  of  industrial  or  social  stress.  The 
advantage  of  learning  them  in  a  game  is  that  limita- 
tions and  defects  may  be  detected  and  to  some  degree 
remedied,  while  in  the  game  of  life  each  failure  brings 
an  inevitable  social  consequence. 

Sometimes  the  distraction  of  players  during  the 
first  periods  of  training  is  ludicrous.  One  day,  while 
working  with  a  squad  of  green  indoor  baseball  players, 
most  of  whom  were  physical  education  teachers,  one 
of  them  made  a  splendid  hit,  good  for  at  least  three 
bases.  She  ran  to  first  and  when  she  was  nearly  to 
second,  turned  and  went  back  to  first.  When  asked 
for  the  reason  of  this  amazing  play,  she  replied,  "  Oh, 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  ATHLETICS     29 

I  noticed  the  first  baseman  was  a  friend  of  mine  and  I 
went  back  to  tell  her  something." 

During  a  beginners'  game  of  indoor  baseball,  a 
good  hard  ball  was  batted  past  center  field  and  went 
under  a  spring  board.  Two  men  were  standing  near  ' 
and,  as  the  fielder  ran  up  and  saw  the  ball  under  the 
board,  she  hesitated  and  then  said :  "  Would  one  of 
you  men  mind  getting  that  ball  for  me.**  "  Of  course 
the  result  was  a  home  run  for  the  other  side.  In  the 
economic  world  such  dependence  during  times  of  re- 
sponsibility means  inefficiency  from  the  employer's 
point  of  view. 

Another  time  in  basketball  a  held  ball  was  called. 
Taking  the  ball  the  instructor  said,  "  Heels  together, 
so  I  can  throw  it  up  between  you,  and  jump  and  try 
to  bat  or  catch  it  when  it  comes  down."  Just  then 
some  one  asked  for  an  explanation  of  a  play.  Imagine 
the  amazement  when  the  instructor  turned  back  and 
found  that  each  player,  instead  of  having  her  own 
heels  together,  had  turned  her  back  to  her  opponent 
so  that  the  four  heels  of  the  two  players  were  to- 
gether. In  this  way  they  were  waiting  to  catch  or 
bat  the  ball  when  it  came  down  between  them !  How 
many  times  has  such  a  lack  of  the  use  of  reasoning 
power  caused  social  calamities.'' 

Imagination — It  may  be  difficult  to  understand 
how  games  develop  some  of  the  mental  qualities,  such 
as  imagination.  A  requirement  for  successful  plays 
is  ability  to  foresee  the  results  of  a  given  play,  as  well 
as  to  put  one's  self  in  the  place  of  another.  The 
penalty  for  not  being  able  to  do  this  is  so  instantane- 


80  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

ous  and  direct  that  the  responsibility  is  immediately 
fixed,  and  by  emphasis  upon  group  relation  players 
may  be  led  constantly  to  place  themselves  in  imagi- 
nary positions.  This  leads  directly  to  a  sympathy 
with  other  players.  It  is  said  that  the  "  tap-root  of 
selfishness  is  weakness  of  the  imagination,"  and 
imagination  certainly  is  a  great  aid  in  developing 
sympathy  with  other  players.  In  the  absence  of  ex- 
perience, no  quality  possesses  more  social  value. 

Reason. — The  ability  to  reason  developed  by 
games  is  more  practical  than  that  gained  by  mathe- 
matics and  other  studies.  It  is  not  so  much  the  power 
of  abstract  thought  as  the  control  of  the  instincts  and 
the  exercise  of  common  sense  and  judgment  during 
activity. 

Social  Qualities  and  Efficiency. — However  much 
these  mental  qualities  make  for  individual  efficiency, 
the  social  qualities  which  give  the  right  spirit  are 
indispensable.  One  may  have  coolness,  accuracy, 
judgment  and  many  other  qualities,  but  unless  these 
are  brought  into  an  ethical  adjustment  team  work 
and  social  consciousness  do  not  result.  Thus  athletics 
have  a  second  great  power — the  development  of  moral 
qualities  such  as  self-control,  unselfishness,  sense  of 
honor,  self-sacrifice,  fairness,  modesty,  decision,  cour- 
age and  sense  of  responsibility. 

Self-Control. — This  must  be  learned  before  a  game 
can  even  proceed.  The  first  lessons  are  in  promptness 
and  obedience.  Take  a  struggling  mass  of  little  East 
Side  children.  They  want  to  be  "  on  the  go  "  every 
instant  and  to  show  off,  and  have  hitherto  done  this 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  ATHLETICS     31 

by  chasing  each  other,  shoving,  pinching  and  kicking, 
complaining,  sulking,  tattling  or  even  going  home 
with  a  "  mad  on."  Obedience  to  orders  is  the  first  step 
out  of  this  maze  of  energy — obedience  when  every 
sense  and  perception  is  alert.  They  must  listen  to 
rules,  must  play  the  position  given,  and  fouls  are 
called  unceasingly  when  they  do  not  obey.  In  a  little 
while  they  are  actually  controlling  themselves  and 
are  preventing  fouls  and  delays.  At  first  they  com- 
plain every  time  they  are  run  into  that  it  is  "  on 
purpose,"  and  refuse  to  co-operate  with  other  play- 
ers. Later  they  regard  being  run  into  as  an  unavoid- 
able accident  and  work  steadily  with  the  team,  playing 
often  with  rivals  to  whom  they  have  hitherto  refused 
to  speak.  Oftentimes  they  have  asked  to  play  at 
opposite  ends  of  the  gymnasium  because  they  did  not 
like  each  other  and  threatened,  "  I  won't  play  if  I 
have  to  be  with  her."  With  a  little  skill,  games  in- 
variably make  them  forget  such  differences.  The 
next  thing  is  to  teach  them  to  be  cheerful  under  de- 
feats and  erroneous  decisions. 

Co-operation. — While  competition  is  the  underly- 
ing principle  of  all  athletic  games,  it  is  equally  true 
that  unselfishness  is  the  basis  of  all  team  work.  It 
may  be  contended  that  women  are  sufficiently  unselfish 
because  they  are  usually  self-sacrificing.  But  their 
self-sacrifice  ordinarily  centers  about  emotion,  as  love 
for  children,  home,  etc.  The  self-sacrifice  brought 
out  by  team  work  is  quite  different,  for  it  is  made 
for  something  impersonal,  as  a  team  victory,  an  in- 
stitution or  a  thing  entirely  apart  from  one's  close 


82  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

ties.  It  is  not  a  supreme  individual  effort  but  is 
shared  jointly  by  others  struggling  for  the  same 
end  on  the  same  plane.  To  share  a  sacrifice  robs  it 
of  individual  glory  and  creates  a  social  glory  which  is 
akin  to  the  feeling  of  patriotism.  A  necessary  form 
of  unselfishness  to  be  learned  is  appreciation  of  the 
ability  of  others.  In  the  beginning  players  say,  / 
want  to  play  basket ;  /  want  to  score ;  /  want  to  play 
with  the  bigger  girls ;  or  I  want  to  make  the  team. 
After  a  year's  team  work  this  largely  disappears  and 
quite  unconsciously  /  is  replaced  by  we. 

Fair  Play. — Closely  allied  with  unselfishness  is  fair 
play.  A  player  enters  a  game  with  the  understanding 
that  all  forms  of  interference  are  adjusted  according 
to  some  prescribed  rule.  This  offers  good  preliminary 
training  for  obedience  to  the  more  complicated  rules 
of  organized  society.  Fair  play  does  not  mean  taking 
mean  advantages  any  more  than  it  means  that  a 
team  is  willing  to  win  by  the  partiality  of  the 
umpire!  There  are  some  things  not  forbidden  by  the 
rules  which  the  spirit  of  fair  play  discourages,  just 
as  there  are  some  anti-social  acts  which  public 
opinion  does  not  countenance,  even  though  the  stat- 
utes are  silent  on  the  matter.  In  every  game  op- 
portunities arise  when  a  trick,  some  mean  little 
thing  or  some  petty  act  will  bring  an  advantage. 
Small  cheating  and  petty  meanness  are  soon  detected 
by  an  observant  instructor  and  girls  need  to  be  held 
strictly  to  a  fair  spirit  and  to  be  judged  solely  by 
their  playing.  Pettiness  is  often  more  distressing 
than  open  unfairness.     Small  vices,  such  as  narrow- 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  ATHLETICS     33 

ness,  spite,  ungenerous  judgment,  intolerance  and  in- 
ability to  omit  the  personal  element  creep  in  and 
should  not  be  excused,  for  they  are  the  insidious 
enemies  of  fair  play  and  can  only  be  eliminated  by 
activities  which  constantly  take  players  beyond  them- 
selves. 

Fair  play  also  means  willingness  to  take  a  fair  share 
of  the  blame.  Among  new  players  is  constantly 
heard:  "  It  wasn't  my  fault ";  "  She  did  that »;  or, 
"  I  could  not  help  it."  There  is  no  more  important 
thing  for  girls  to  learn  than  how  to  take  fair 
criticism.  Many  unattractive  habits,  ungenerous 
thoughts  and  unworthy  acts  are  due  not  to  ineradi- 
cable things  in  the  individual,  but  rather  to  her  lack 
of  knowledge  of  their  existence  and  portent. 

Loyalty. — Loyalty  and  a  sense  of  honor  are 
among  the  most  difficult  qualities  to  develop  in  girls. 
They  are  on  the  whole  not  very  loyal  to  each  other 
and  are  not  strongly  inclined  to  organization.  In 
games  players  cannot  cheat  or  bluff  through  or  get 
credit  for  things  which  they  do  not  do.  They  cannot 
lay  blame  on  others.  At  first  when  they  do  not  win, 
they  are  inclined  to  sneak  off  in  tears.  If  a  sense  of 
honor  and  loyalty  are  made  to  mean  anything,  after 
a  little  training  most  girls  will  be  found  standing 
bravely  with  their  team  in  defeat,  congratulating  the 
other  team  or  modestly  accepting  their  share  of  the 
team's  victory.  It  is  a  great  thing  to  learn  to  be  a 
good  loser.  It  is  also  a  great  thing  to  share  victory 
and  feel  that  some  one  else  has  done  as  much  as  one's 
self  to  win  it.     There  are  many  girls  who  never  have 


34  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

had  this  sense  of  sharing  victory  or  defeat  in  the 
guise  of  group  loyalty. 

At  first  some  girls  are  inclined  to  violate  the  rules 
laid  down  for  health,  such  as  length  of  practice,  times 
of  playing,  etc.,  thinking  "  the  instructor  will  not 
catch  me  at  it,"  but  later  they  come  to  feel,  "  It  isn't 
the  square  thing  to  do  when  I  am  trusted."  After  a 
little  training,  rules  come  to  be  regarded  as  a  mutual 
agreement  and  many  players  even  consider  themselves 
a  party  to  their  making.  It  is  a  great  moral  gain 
for  girls  to  feel  that  these  are  agreements  not  to  be 
broken. 

Courage — It  takes  the  finest  kind  of  courage  to  be 
fair,  to  be  honest  and  to  be  loyal — qualities  absolutely 
essential  to  good  team  work.  Physical  and  moral 
courage  and  especially  the  latter  are  unquestionably 
among  the  greatest  needs  of  our  modern  civilization 
and  among  all  individual  qualities  can  least  be  dis- 
pensed with  in  group  activities. 

It  may  be  thought  that  prejudices,  little  vanities 
and  jealousies,  unkind  words  or  exaggerated  state- 
ments have  little  harm  in  themselves  and  that  brag- 
ging and  snobbishness  are  perhaps  pardonable  under 
some  conditions.  Games  reveal  these  qualities  in  their 
exact  proportion  and  without  the  softening  arts  of 
the  drawing-room.  Nothing  is  so  good  for  a  girl  as- 
to  find  that  money,  clothes,  family,  prestige  or  influ- 
ence do  not  help  her  in  the  least  degree  to  play  good 
ball  or  to  make  a  team.  Wheii  a  player  stands  or 
falls  absolutely  by  what  she  is  and  can  do,  she  realizes 
that  the  game  makes  all  equal.     Whenever  college 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  ATHLETICS     35 

clubs  use  "  influence  "  to  get  their  members  on  teams 
it  frequently  makes  not  only  a  weaker  team,  but,  more 
important  still,  it  makes  it  impossible  for  contests 
to  teach  fair  play,  since  it  destroys  the  educational 
value  by  making  the  basis  of  selection  unfair. 

Sense  of  Responsibility. — The  player  learns  many 
other  things.  She  acquires  a  sense  of  responsibility 
which  makes  her  do  her  part  faithfully  and  she  does 
not  excuse  herself  on  the  ground  that  she  thought 
some  one  else  would  do  it.  All  the  risks,  hazards  and 
opportunities  are  for  her  to  use  on  her  own  initiative. 
If  she  fails  she  must  bear  the  blame  and  chaffing  with 
the  simple  resolve  to  do  better  next  time.  She  is 
prompt.  Tardiness  may  mean  not  only  that  she  will 
have  to  wait  her  turn  or  not  play  at  all,  and  thereby 
lose  some  of  the  fun,  but  she  realizes  that  it  may  also 
weaken  her  team.  Then,  too,  she  acquires  a  sense  of 
proportion.  The  new  player  not  only  dissipates  her 
energy  in  useless  plays  and  tires  herself  out  without 
accomplishing  anything,  but  her  idea  of  her  own  im- 
portance is  sadly  disproportionate  to  her  real  value 
to  the  team.  It  is  this  prevailing  sense  of  difference 
which  gives  an  excuse  for  ignoring  the  rights  of 
others.  Games  so  lessen  this  that  a  player  soon  learns 
that  essential  of  fairness — to  judge  others  on  an 
equality  with  herself.  After  playing  for  a  while 
she  comes  to  realize  the  limitations  of  her  importance 
as  well  as  of  her  ability,  for  over-confidence  brings 
sure  defeat.  Many  women  who  have  had  the  advan- 
tages of  college  training  but  not  of  athletics,  and  who 
have  not  gained  this  sense  of  proportion,  magnify 


86  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

both  their  importance  and  advantage  to  the  practical 
world  in  a  way  which  sadly  handicaps  them  in  doing 
eflpective  work. 

Discipline. — The  discipline  incident  to  games  is  of 
the  utmost  value  in  education.    One  instructor  writes : 

"  Games  do  provide  this  discipline.  During  a  period 
of  twelve  years,  I  can  certainly  say  that  they  help  to 
create  a  broader  point  of  view  in  the  school  and  to 
promote  friendliness,  mutual  appreciation  and  forbear- 
ance and  to  lessen  the  spirit  which  imparts  personal 
motives  into  every  action." 

Development  of  moral  qualities  necessarily  means 
control  of  the  emotions.  Here  games  have  an  especial 
advantage  for  girls,  for  many  are  abnormally  sen- 
sitive, introspective  or  morbid  and  live  too  subjective 
a  life.  The  various  ethical  and  religious  cults  which 
emphasize  the  subjective  appeal  strongly  to  them  and 
are  frequently  made  a  substitute  for  healthful  normal 
work  and  interests.  Games  are  largely  objective  and 
afford  little  opportunity  for  analysis  of  feeling  or 
consciousness  of  the  process.  The  attention  is  cen- 
tered upon  the  tiling  to  be  done  and  not  upon  the 
process  of  doing  it. 

Training  for  Citizenship — These  qualities  are  not 
essentially  masculine.  They  are  but  human  qualities 
needed  for  human  fellowship.  We  have  yet  to  see  a 
group  of  girls  made  masculine  where  the  spirit  of  the 
training  has  been  that  which  we  have  endeavored  to 
portray.  We  do  not  mean  to  say,  of  course,  that 
every  individual  trait  can  be  strengthened  or  every 
defect  removed  by  game  work  or  that  games  alone 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  ATHLETICS     37 

will  do  this.  But  we  do  mean  to  say  that  athletic 
games,  when  put  on  a  proper  basis  and  under  intel- 
ligent trained  instructors,  will  accomplish  far  more 
than  has  ever  been  required  of  them. 

It  is  evident  that  the  training  obtained  through 
athletics  is  carried  over  into  the  business  and  social 
life  after  the  girl  leaves  school.  Other  things  being 
equal,  she  is  ordinarily  a  fairer  competitor  and  better 
citizen.  The  responsible,  reliable  player  becomes  the 
same  kind  of  a  citizen,  for  in  games  moral  energy  is 
stored  up  and  habits  established  which  govern  the 
activities  in  later  life.  The  girl  who  has  learned 
through  the  experience  of  games  not  to  do  unfair 
things  under  the  stress  of  competition  has  had  the 
training  which  enables  her  to  face  temptations  later 
in  life  where  the  stakes  involve  large  interests.  The 
girl  who  shirked  responsibility  on  the  field  does  not 
alter  her  course  in  later  life.  The  girl  who  gave  up 
basketball  because  she  could  not  get  more  than  her 
share  of  praise  will  still  be  found  baiting  for  this 
indispensable  necessity  to  vanity.  The  girl  who  was 
unfair  and  intemperate  in  games  carries  these  same 
qualities  over  into  her  social  or  business  world  and 
every  one  who  lives  or  works  with  her  is  affected  by 
them.  The  girl  who  failed  to  do  team  work  or  re- 
fused to  play  games  at  all  continues  an  individualist 
in  her  later  activities.  Whatever  is  acquired  of 
good  social  and  moral  qualities  is  taken  into  the 
home  and  tends  to  raise  the  home  standard  and  so 
affects  the  community  in  a  broad  way ;  while  if  pupils 
are  permitted  to  become  sneaks  and  cheats  and  to 


38  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

cherish  a  mean,  contemptible,  selfish  spirit,  that  like- 
wise influences  the  community  to  its  detriment.  Mod- 
ern civilization  is  complex,  strenuous  and  often  artifi- 
cial and  our  system  of  education  needs  organized 
games  to  prepare  the  girls  for  organized  life  and 
activities. 

General  Advantages  of  Training. — There  are  also 
some  general  advantages  which  games  possess.  They 
aff^ord  a  healthful,  impersonal  topic  of  conversation 
and  this  is  much  to  be  appreciated  in  schools  where 
numbers  of  girls  are  segregated  and  in  clubs  where 
undesirable  topics  may  arise. 

Pride  in  "  good  condition  "  has  an  ethical  value, 
for  it  prevents  many  a  snare  into  which  one  indifferent 
to  it  may  fall.  The  girl  who  "  does  not  care  "  or  who 
puts  clothes  above  "  good  condition  "  is  much  in  need 
of  athletic  training. 

The  amount  of  real  happiness  given  by  games  is 
often  underestimated  and  this  is  an  important  factor 
in  character-building. 

More  emphasis  is  needed  on  leisure,  and  by  increas- 
ing play  requirements  educational  institutions  may 
do  much  to  bring  this  about.  The  growing  commer- 
cial spirit  in  educational  institutions  so  hurries  stu- 
dents that  they  have  no  time  for  games.  Think  of 
it !  The  play  spirit  which  should  characterize 
youth  has  not  only  to  be  stimulated  but  games 
may  really  have  to  be  made  compulsory  in  order  to 
retain  it. 

Esthetic  Value  of  Organized  Play. — The  es- 
thetic   training   obtainable    by    means    of   games    is 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  ATHLETICS     39 

receiving  an  increased  amount  of  thought.  This  in- 
cludes the  personal  appearance  of  players  and  the 
spirit  of  games.  In  the  former,  the  first  essentials  are 
that  girls  stand  well,  walk  well,  run  well,  throw  well 
and  wear  a  neat  and  attractive  costume.  Dress  has 
received  much  attention  as  a  matter  of  comfort  but 
not  enough  from  the  esthetic  standpoint. 

The  correction  of  bad  habits  and  manners  on  the 
field  is  also  a  part  of  the  esthetic  training.  The  ab- 
sence of  uncouth  language,  squealing  and  yelling, 
crying,  disagreeable  facial  expressions,  eating  between 
halves  of  games  and  boisterousness,  is  the  result  of 
emphasizing  the  esthetic  feature  of  games.  New  play- 
ers are  inclined  to  think  that  slang  is  the  language 
most  appropriate  and  strength  the  main  asset  for  a 
successful  game. 

The  dignity  of  play  has  been  far  too  much  sacri- 
ficed to  the  so-called  fun  of  playing  which  so  fre- 
quently develops  into  roughness.  A  matter  needing 
considerable  attention  is  the  conduct  of  teams  between 
the  halves  of  match  games  and  the  attitude  of  their 
friends  and  audience.  In  one  of  the  most  prominent 
woman's  colleges,  it  was  not  unusual  to  see  the  teams, 
when  resting  between  halves,  lie  down  on  the  floor  in 
front  of  the  audience  while  an  army  of  friends  rushed 
out  with  lemons,  towels  and  pails  of  water  and  began 
feeding,  rubbing  and  washing  them.  Only  after  pro- 
tests on  the  part  of  the  players  did  their  captain  allow 
them  to  sit  up.  Some  of  the  players  tried  to  look 
warm  and  tired  so  as  to  receive  more  attention.  This 
kind  of  thing  is  common  in  match  games  between 


\ 


40  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

schools  and  is  mere  gallery  play,  which  is  often  con- 
fused with  sportsmanship. 

The  next  best  thing  to  getting  on  the  team  is  to  be 
a  sympathetic  friend,  and  this  is  at  present  an  over- 
worked part  and  induces  players  to  sham  exhaustion 
and  overwork,  a  practice  which  hurts  the  game. 

Another  thing  which  frequently  occurs  and  robs  a 
game  of  dignity  is  interference  on  the  part  of  friends 
and  audience.  When  a  player  becomes  dizzy  from  an 
unexpected  collision,  or  a  trifling  accident  happens,  or 
when  a  player  squeals  easily  over  small  things,  or  the 
instructor  lets  her  go  on  playing  "  on  her  nerve," 
then  the  friends  and  audience  begin  to  protest.  "  She 
ought  not  to  play  " ;  "  She  will  hurt  herself,"  etc. 
When  time  is  called  for  breathing  space  or  for  trifling 
matters,  friends  collect  about  the  players  and  exag- 
gerate the  situation.  A  responsible  instructor  and  cap- 
tain are  the  best  judges  of  when  players  should  come 
off'  the  field  or  when  they  are  really  over-playing  or 
merely  shamming.  These  conditions  are  to  be  con- 
trolled by  right  training  and  responsible  instructors 
and  not  by  the  sympathetic  interference  of  friends 
and  audiences  who  cannot  possibly  judge  the  situation 
and  who  thus  misrepresent  the  eff'ect  of  the  game. 

In  the  official  rules  for  basketball  appears  this 
statement : 


"  The  greatest  danger  in  connection  with  athletic 
sports  is  not  that  men  will  get  hurt,  but  that  in  the  ex- 
citement of  the  game  and  on  account  of  great  desire  for 
victory  they  will  do  things  that  are  ungentlemanly  and 
discourteous.     This  fear  is  shared  for  girls  and  has  to 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  ATHLETICS     41 

some  measure  retarded  the  use  of  athletics.  This  fear 
will  not  be  realized  if  the  object  of  all  players  is  good 
sport  and  not  the  mere  winning  of  victory.  Sport  which 
violates  the  principles  of  courtesy  and  good  character 
is  never  good  sport." 

When  we  first  insisted  that  form  be  a  requirement  of 
making  the  university  class  teams  and  that  no  girl 
who  persisted  in  careless  dress  and  playing  should 
participate  in  any  match  game,  there  was  considerable 
indignation.  But  before  the  close  of  the  year  scarcely 
a  player  needed  a  reprimand  for  disorderly  appear- 
ance ;  some  who  had  been  exceedingly  careless  admit- 
ted that  improvements  in  street  dress  and  manner  were 
due  to  this  training.  When  a  team  "  straggles  "  on 
the  field;  when  players  chew  gum;  when  they  lie  or 
sit  upon  the  floor  or  gather  in  groups  and  talk  when 
time  is  called ;  when  they  call  to  each  other ;  or  when 
they  clap  hands  or  whistle  for  the  ball, — then  the 
audience  may  be  certain  that  good  form  is  not  con- 
sidered. Few  girls  have  thus  far  learned  the  beauty, 
joy  and  science  of  the  silent  game.  Grace  and  silence 
are  among  the  anticipations  rather  than  the  realiza- 
tions, and  some  still  confuse  noise  with  sport  and 
having  a  good  time. 

Certainly  by  paying  attention  to  the  esthetic  side, 
grace  can  be  developed.  One  basketball  player  rarely 
stopped  a  ground  ball  without  falling  down  and  roll- 
ing over.  When  this  matter  was  brought  to  her  at- 
tention, she  said  she  was  "  top-heavy  "  and  could  not 
help  it.  Her  measurements  were  taken  and  some  spe- 
cial work  given,  and  she  was  told  that  she  played  well 


42  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

enough  to  make  her  class  team  but  for  this  unfortu- 
nate tendency.  In  less  than  two  months  there  was 
such  a  decided  improvement  that  she  made  the  team. 
The  esthetic  possibilities  of  games  also  appeal 
strongly  to  many  of  the  little  settlement  players  and 
working  girls  who  thus  have  their  eyes  opened  on  a 
new  world. 

Atmosphere  of  Games The  spirit  of  playing  is 

the  second  essential  in  a  beautiful  game.  The  atmos- 
phere makes  or  mars  its  beauty.  This  spirit  is  shown 
chiefly  by  the  attitude  of  players  toward  each  other, 
toward  officials  and  toward  their  audience,  if  there 
be  one.  It  is  also  made  up  of  the  kind  of  interest  and 
appreciation  which  the  audience  gives.  Enthusiasm, 
unfailing  courtesy,  even  under  the  most  trying  cir- 
cumstances, avoidance  of  disputes,  acceptance  of  de- 
cisions, joyous  rather  than  competitive  playing, 
friendliness — these  are  tests  of  whether  a  team  has 
been  trained  with  the  idea  of  preserving  the  beautiful 
features.  Later,  these  are  also  tests  of  whether  one 
has  the  right  attitude  toward  one's  vocation. 

Social  Value  to  the  Audience. — We  have  thus  far 
considered  only  the  education  of  players.  It  is  said 
that  "  the  fatal  moment  for  a  game  arrives  when  peo- 
ple prefer  to  see  it  played  by  others  rather  than  play 
it  themselves."  The  day  arrived  long  ago  for  women  ; 
and  worse  still,  many  do  not  care  to  see  games  played. 
At  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  any  evening  during  the  sum- 
mer, the  parks  and  streets  are  densely  packed  with 
men  and  boys.  When  a  roar  bursts  forth,  the 
stranger  may  think  it  is  a  riot,  but  it  is  only  the  play 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  ATHLETICS     43 

spirit  of  the  multitude,  shut  out  of  the  baseball  field, 
cheering  a  good  play  chalked  on  the  scoreboard, — 
a  pathetic  sight  for  one  who  loves  games  but  hopeful 
since  this  spirit  can  be  kept  alive  under  such  con- 
ditions. But  in  all  this  crowd,  few  passing  women  or 
girls  even  glance  at  the  board.  It  is  true  profes- 
sionals are  playing,  but  in  that  crowd  of  men  and  boys 
exists  group  consciousness  and  through  it  surges 
enthusiasm. 

Games  played  by  women  can  be  taught  and  played 
with  a  view  to  making  them  interesting  and  educa- 
tional to  the  audience;  if  this  be  neglected,  there  is 
small  justification  for  inviting  persons  to  attend.  If 
small  groups  are  interested  here  and  there  many 
women  who  would  not  otherwise  attend  games  might 
get  back  a  little  of  the  play  spirit  and  enthusiasm 
which  enable  them  to  understand  the  girls'  point  of 
view.  Not  enough  parents  now  know  what  athletics 
mean.  If  they  see  that  games  are  rough  and  in- 
jurious they  should  be  able  intelligently  to  lend  a 
hand  at  regulation  or  suppression.  If  games  are  well 
conducted  and  beneficial,  parents  can  do  much  to  fur- 
ther good  sport  by  their  interest  and  approbation. 

There  are  thousands  of  women  not  strong  or  young 
or  interested  enough  to  play  organized  games  who 
need  to  understand  and  appreciate  good,  clean  sport. 
Audiences  which  applaud  unfair  plays  or  points  made 
on  fouls  unconsciously  become  a  party  to  fraud,  while 
the  influence  of  victory  won  by  clean,  fair  plays  is 
equally  uplifting.  Every  girl  who  cheers  her  team  at 
a  class  contest ;  who  gets  out  "  grinds  "  to  a  meet ; 


44  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

who  brings  her  mother  and  friends ;  who  arouses  club 
interest;  who  interests  the  neighborhood;  who  gets 
up  songs  or  otherwise  stimulates  interest,  renders  a 
social  service  by  opening  some  little  corner  of  a 
crusted  mind  or  heart  to  a  love  of  games,  and  also 
stirs  the  group  spirit.  One  of  the  best  ways  to  keep 
a  good  spirit  is  to  have  the  audience  in  harmony  with 
the  players,  and  have  it  respond  to  good  clean  plays 
and  discourage  "  dirty  playing." 

Because  of  the  great  educational  value  to  the  audi- 
ence and  the  limited  opportunities  for  women  to  play 
games,  the  community  or  municipality  has  an  obliga- 
tion in  providing  and  supervising  clean  games  by 
men  to  which  admission  should  be  free  and  to  which 
women  should  be  encouraged  to  come. 

The  educational  possibilities  of  athletic  games,  em- 
bracing mental,  social,  ethical  and  esthetic  features, 
seem  to  the  writers  to  be  very  great^and  the  subject 
is  one  to  which  educators  throughoukthe  country  may 
well  give  thought  in  their  efforts  to  adapt  studies  and 
work  in  order  that  girls  may  be  better  fitted  for  their 
place  in  hfe, — be  it  the  home,  the  shop,  the  school,  the 
ofSce  or  any  other  avenue  open  to  them.      | 


CHAPTER  III 

INSTRUCTORS  —  THEIR     RESPONSIBILITY 
AND  TRAINING 

Whenever  any  activity  possesses  the  power  of 
being  either  good  or  bad  for  the  individual  or  group, 
the  question  of  leaders  becomes  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance. Athletics  have  this  power  as  does  no  other 
form  of  physical  activity.  On  the  one  hand  they 
are  capable  of  being  carried  on  in  such  a  way  as  to 
develop  strength,  nobility,  generosity,  truthfulness, 
fairness  and  force  of  character  or  they  may  bring  out 
meanness,  trickery,  dishonesty,  viciousness  and  weak- 
ness of  character.  It  is  useless  to  expect  that  girls 
will  spontaneously  develop  only  good  qualities.  It  is 
idle  to  urge  that  athletics  be  used  for  their  educa- 
tional value  unless  they  are  under  the  supervision  of 
teachers  who  are  intelligent  enough  to  understand 
their  full  significance,  well  trained  enough  to  teach 
principles  which  make  a  clean,  accurate  game  and 
strong  enough  to  exemplify  such  principles  on  the 
field.  It  is  therefore  a  question  of  competent  teach- 
ing and  capacity  for  leadership.  Those  now  in  the 
profession  or  who  enter  it  within  the  next  decade  will, 
to  a  great  extent,  determine  the  standard  of  athletics 
now  in  the  process  of  making.  This  standard  will 
depend,  among  other  things,  upon :  ( 1 )  The  qualifica- 

45 


46     VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

tions  of  instructors.  (2)  Opportunity  and  thorough- 
ness of  training.  (3)  The  demands  of  employing 
schools. 

Special  Qualifications  of  Instructors. — ^What  con- 
stitutes necessary  qualifications  are  not  always  clearly 
defined  even  in  the  minds  of  those  upon  whom  fall  the 
selection  and  training  of  instructors.  Our  replies 
from  about  one  hundred  schools  and  colleges  em- 
phasized qualifications  of  character  rather  than  of 
technical  proficiency.  Many  private  school  principals 
showed  little  comprehension  of  the  question,  while  a 
few  thought  our  questions  too  general  to  answer.  En- 
thusiasm received  the  highest  number  of  votes.  The 
others  in  order  were  firmness  or  decision,  fairness, 
leadership,  personality,  high  moral  character,  and 
standard,  good  judgment,  honesty,  justice,  tact 
and  good  breeding.  Sympathy,  a  pleasant  manner, 
thoroughness,  comradeship,  executive  ability,  common 
sense  and  courage  each  received  one  mention. 

In  the  matter  of  proficiency,  less  than  twenty  per 
cent,  mentioned  knowledge  of  the  game,  and  but  two 
per  cent,  specified  clearly  that  this  meant  ability  to 
play  the  game  itself.  Four  per  cent,  thought  a 
knowledge  of  physiology  and  hygiene  desirable  and 
two  per  cent,  emphasized  experience.  The  most  fre- 
quent combinations  of  qualifications  were:  Enthusi- 
asm and  good  character;  decision  and  honesty;  and 
enthusiasm,  knowledge  of  game  and  good  character. 
Among  the  more  comprehensive  ones  were :  "  Knowl- 
edge of  game,  keen  sense  of  justice,  honor,  sense  of 
what  constitutes  good  behavior,  knowledge  of  peda- 


INSTRUCTORS— THEIR  RESPONSIBILITY    47 

gogy  and  of  human  nature,  appreciation  of  something 
better  than  the  commercial  spirit ";  "  honesty,  judg- 
ment, quickness,  executive  ability  and  enthusiasm  for 
the  sport  and  not  only  to  win  " ;  and  "  honesty,  im- 
partiality, good  judgment,  tact,  physical  ability  and 
personality."  In  contrast  with  these  were :  "  ability 
to  teach  tricks  " ;  "  same  training  as  any  other  teacher 
in  the  school " ;  and  "  attractive,  graceful,  refined 
person  who  knows  her  business."  The  recognition  of 
the  necessity  for  high  character,  fair  play  and  other 
ethical  qualities  speaks  well  for  a  high  standard,  if 
they  are  really  insisted  upon.   , 

On  the  instructor  falls  the  responsibility  of  making 
games  educational  and  of  giving  them  a  place  in  the 
school's  plan  as  well  as  of  safeguarding  the  health  of 
pupils.  In  order  to  meet  her  responsibility  something 
more  is  required  than  was  included  in  many  of  the 
replies,  some  of  which  are  quoted  above. 

In  our  judgment,  the  qualifications  least  to  be  dis- 
pensed with  are  the  following: 

First  and  always  a  play  spirit.  Only  one  who  loves 
games  and  who  has  learned  obedience  under  the  stress 
of  competition  can  develop  the  best  spirit  in  others. 
When  women  are  without  the  play  spirit,  supervision 
is  hkely  to  become  mere  executive  detail.  They  miss 
the  joy  of  playing  and  consequently  fail  to  bring 
it  out  in  their  pupils.  Where  instructors  really  dis- 
like games  they  administer  them  in  a  purely  perfunc- 
tory manner.  Recently  a  new  teacher  discontinued 
games  because  "  they  made  the  girls  more  difficult  to 
control,"  entirely  losing  sight  of  the  fact  that  the 


48  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

girls  were  sadly  in  need  of  discipline  and  of  an  out- 
let for  energy. 

Second,  ability  to  do  the  thing  taught.  This  is  the 
surest  means  of  winning  the  respect,  confidence  and 
loyalty  of  players,  who  do  not  give  these  to  teachers 
whom  they  excel  and  who  therefore  cease  to  be  an 
inspiration.  It  would  seem  unnecessary  to  emphasize 
such  a  qualification,  did  not  a  large  percentage  of 
schools  employ  teachers  who  lack  such  ability.  Who 
ever  heard  of  a  language  teacher  who  had  received  no 
instruction  in  languages;  or  a  teacher  of  music  who 
did  not  know  her  notes  ?  But  a  teacher  who  does  not 
know  rules  or  cannot  throw  a  ball !  "  Well,  the  girls  can 
just  be  turned  out  to  play,  you  know  ";  or,  "  They 
can  buy  rules  and  teach  each  other  " ;  or  "  Make  their 
own  rules."  When  schools  realize  that  it  is  just  as  bad 
form  to  make  their  own  rules  for  a  standard  game  as  it 
is  to  create  their  own  French  pronunciation,  athletics 
may  be  really  taught.  Often  when  girls  are  quarreling 
over  rules,  the  teacher  who  does  not  play  thinks  what 
a  good  time  they  are  having  and  wonders  what  it  is 
all  about.  Bad  tempers  and  cheating  thus  go  unre- 
buked,  and  if  accidents  occur,  bad  manners  result  or 
character  is  warped,  it  is  "  the  fault  of  the  game." 

An  instructor  in  charge  of  a  school  for  girls  for 
many  years  writes: 

"  But  any  school  makes  a  mistake  which  does  not  have 
on  the  staff  some  teacher  young  enough  to  be  a  com- 
panion to  the  girls  and  sympathize  with  their  view  of 
life,  and  such  enjoy  games  for  their  own  sake  and  prefer 
taking  their  recreation  in  games." 


INSTRUCTORS— THEIR  RESPONSIBILITY    49 

Ability  to  teach  implies  that  the  instructor  knows 
the  game  so  well  that  she  is  able  both  to  classify  and 
interpret  rules.  It  is  also  an  advantage  to  know  the 
history  and  theory  of  the  game ;  the  reasons  for  rules 
and  their  changes;  what  demands  the  various  games 
make  on  the  organs  and  vitality  and  what  their 
physical,  mental  and  moral  advantages  are.  Among 
the  questions  asked  in  our  investigation  was :  "  What 
rules  do  you  use  and  why  do  you  prefer  them.''  "    A 

frequent  answer  was :  "  We  use  rules  because 

they  are  easier  to  get." 

In  the  third  place,  it  is  desirable  that  the  instructor 
have  an  ideal  a  little  beyond  that  which  her  play- 
ers can  attain;  otherwise  they  soon  get  the  idea  that 
they  know  all  about  it  and  have  nothing  to  "  work 
up."  This  often  explains  lack  of  interest  where  com- 
petition is  not  used  to  stimulate  it.  The  instructor's 
conception  of  the  value  of  her  own  work  is  important. 
If  she  regards  it  merely  as  exercise  or  as  a  subject  of 
minor  importance,  and  if  she  permits  others  so  to  re- 
gard it,  she  does  not  support  the  standard  which 
physical  educators  who  believe  in  athletics  are  en- 
deavoring to  establish. 

It  will  be  conceded  that  the  instructor  needs  to  be 
a  disciplinarian.  But  it  is  also  necessary  that  she 
be  able  to  tell  when  to  insist  upon  the  letter  and  when 
upon  the  spirit  of  the  game.  A  sense  of  humor 
is  a  most  helpful  factor  in  this.  There  are  days 
when  she  works  her  players  and  others  when  she 
only  plays  with  them.  A  sense  of  humor  not 
only   relieves  the  tension  but  it   tends  to  eliminate 


60  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

that  most  undesirable   feature  of  instruction — sar- 
casm or  ridicule. 

Confidence  in  herself  and  players  is  also  helpful. 
The  skeptic,  cynic  and  pessimist  do  not  ordinarily 
make  good  instructors,  for  they  have  too  frequently 
lost  the  play  spirit.  Ability  to  give  frank,  honest 
criticism  of  faults  and  appreciation  of  achievements 
usually  accompanies  such  confidence,  but  not  when  it 
has  grown  into  egotism. 

Personality  is  an  elusive  thing.  It  usually  implies 
a  gift  for  managing  people  and  ability  to  compel 
respect,  to  interest  and  to  inspire.  The  instructor 
needs  to  combine  friendliness  with  these.  Whatever 
she  has  of  social  presence,  refinement,  character  and 
experience  is  a  great  help. 

At  the  risk  of  being  criticised  for  describing  an 
ideal  rather  than  a  teacher,  there  is  one  other  quality 
which  we  have  found  indispensable,  that  of  courage — 
courage  to  teach  a  clean,  fair  game  in  the  face  of 
discouragements  and  defeats;  courage  to  be  a  real 
person,  free  from  affectation  and  unworthy  ambition 
and  to  stand  for  the  square  thing  even  when  the 
school  itself  may  not  give  its  support. 
/  In  brief,  then,  the  things  to  look  for  in  the  candi- 
date are:  TPlay  spirit  (often  disguised  as  enthusiasm)  ; 
Mbility  to  play  as  well  as  teach ;  l^ief  in  educational 
(value  of  games  ;fii  personality  which  1ms  capacity  for 
/leadership  and  ability  to  inspire;  l)id  a   character 
/which,  in  addition  to  true  culture  and  a  spirit  of  fair- 
/  ness,  possesses  the  somewhat   rare  quality  of  high 
moral  courage. 


INSTRUCTORS— THEIR  RESPONSIBILITY    51 

General  Qualifications  of  Instructors. — These  may 
be  called  special  qualifications.  Added  to  these,  are 
general  training  such  as  a  fair  education  and  knowl- 
edge of  such  subjects  as  anatomy,  physiology,  hy- 
giene, dietetics,  pedagogy,  psychology  and  sociology. 
If  it  is  not  possible  to  find  instructors  with  all  of  these 
qualities  and  of  this  general  training,  each  school 
must  decide  for  itself  which  it  can  best  do  without, 
according  to  its  conditions. 

Relation  of  Instructor  to  Players. — Not  enough 
attention  has  been  paid  to  the  relation  of  instructors 
to  players.  The  athletic  field  is  different  from  the 
classroom — ^just  as  play  is  more  natural  and  less 
formal  than  study,  and  suggestion  plays  a  large  part. 
For  instance,  partiality  may  undermine  the  value  of 
the  game.  The  instructor  who  permits  players  to  do 
favors  for  her  or  who  accepts  homage  or  devotion  can 
rarely  instill  a  spirit  of  fair  play.  In  a  measure,  the 
attitude  of  the  instructor  also  determines  that  of 
players  to  each  other.  If  she  is  undignified  and  un- 
fair she  may  expect  these  of  her  players.  If  she 
lounges  about,  uses  slang  and  nicknames,  the  girls 
are  likely  to  do  so.  Topics  of  conversation  that  she 
favors  will  become  the  popular  ones.  Many  instruct- 
ors fail  because  they  cannot  distinguish  between 
friendliness  and  familiarity ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
harshness  or  indifference  greatly  lessens  free  expres- 
sion of  the  play  impulse. 

Men  as  Instructors. — In  any  consideration  of  this 
subject,  an  itnportant  question  is  whether  instructors 
shall  be  men  or  women.     It  is  frequently  contended 


62  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

that  men  are  better  fitted  for  this  field.  This  must 
necessarily  be  true  until  the  social  education  of  women 
becomes  much  broader.  But  there  are  some  serious 
objections  to  men  instructors. 

Invariably  men  teach  according  to  prevailing 
standards  for  men,  while  the  type  of  instructor  who 
will  teach  athletics  as  a  branch  of  education  is  most 
needed.  Men  instructors  train  primarily  for  contests, 
are  interested  in  developing  teams  and  have  little  pa- 
tience with  weak  girls. 

All  careful  athletic  games  are  based  upon  physical 
examinations  taken  by  the  instructor.  Obviously  a 
woman  should  do  this. 

Men  instructors  show  one  of  two  tendencies.  First, 
if  they  see  a  real  interest,  they  overwork  women  be- 
cause they  do  not  realize  their  physical  limitations. 
At  times  there  should  be  a  light  practice  or  none  at 
all,  and  this  is  a  matter  which  men  cannot  properly 
supervise.  Second,  they  go  to  the  opposite  extreme 
and  think  because  women  cannot  play  as  well  or  as 
much  as  men  they  can  play  as  they  please !  In  that 
case  they  assume  a  gallant  and  indulgent  attitude 
and  permit  players  to  violate  rules,  "  because  they 
will  not  become  professionals  and  it  does  not 
matter."  This  is  really  a  most  serious  objection 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  educational  value  of 
games. 

Where  the  instructor  is  a  woman  there  is,  moreover, 
no  possible  complication  from  the  question  of  sex. 
Some  persons  in  charge  of  athletics  think  that  men 
interest  girls  more  in  their  work  and  are  therefore 


INSTRUCTORS— THEIR  RESPONSIBILITY    53 

more  desirable.  Ordinarily  the  interest  should  be  in 
the  game  itself  and  not  in  the  one  who  teaches  it. 

The  great  disadvantage  of  women  teachers  lies  in 
their  narrow,  individualistic  training,  which  often 
prevents  their  exemplifying  or  developing  desired 
qualities  of  character  in  their  pupils ;  their  inclina- 
tion to  "  baby  "  players  and  thus  strengthen  selfish 
tendencies;  and  their  wilUngness  to  teach  an  in- 
accurate game.  So  long  as  specific  attempts  are  not 
made  to  eliminate  these  defects,  men  will  necessarily 
keep  the  lead  in  both  quality  of  leadership  and  of 
instruction. 

•  Schools  of  Physical  Education. — It  is  one  thing  to 
set  a  standard,  and  quite  another  to  find  instructors 
to  maintain  it.  Naturally  much  is  expected  of  schools 
which  train  teachers  for  this  field.  The  present  sup- 
ply comes  from  four  main  sources — schools  of  physi- 
cal education,  normal  schools,  colleges  which  require 
physical  training  for  graduation  and  schools  of 
elocution  and  oratory. 

We  found  that  the  majority  of  trained  teachers 
were  pupils  or  graduates  of  schools  of  physical  edu- 
cation either  at  their  regular  or  summer  sessions. 
With  a  few  exceptions,  they  had  charge  of  both  gym- 
nastics and  athletics.  This  being  true,  it  is  important 
to  know  what  athletic  training  these  schools  give. 
The  following  are  brief  statements  of  the  work  offered 
by  the  leading  schools : 

A.  This  school  offers  a  two  years'  course.  During 
the  first  term  of  the  Junior  year,  on  a  schedule  call- 
ing for  five  hours  of  work  daily,  one  and  one-half 


54  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

hours  weekly  are  offered,  but  it  is  not  clear  if  these 
are  gymnastic  or  athletic  games.  During  the  second 
term,  on  a  schedule  calling  for  four  hours  of  work 
daily,  the  same  work  is  offered  and  athletics  are  given 
during  one  month  out  of  doors,  but  the  amount  is  not 
stated.  So  far  as  we  can  learn  there  are  no  intro- 
ductory or  other  lectures  on  athletics,  no  discussion 
of  their  relation  to  other  physical  work  or  to  educa- 
tion. In  the  Senior  year,  during  the  first  term  on 
a  schedule  calling  for  six  hours  of  work  daily,  six 
hours  per  week  for  one  month  are  devoted  to  training 
classes  in  athletics  and  during  the  second  term  some 
time  during  the  month  of  May  is  used  for  out-of-door 
work.  Doubtless  there  are  extra  hours  wliich  the 
pupils  themselves  give  to  practice,  which  however  is 
not  compulsory. 

B.  The  instruction  appears  to  be  graded  and  the 
course  covers  three  years.  During  the  first  year  only 
practice  work  is  offered  in  elementary  athletics,  which 
is  stated  to  include:  standing  jump,  running  jump, 
high  kick,  starting  in  running  and  running  vault, 
gymnastic  games,  basketball  and  minor  games  of 
ball.  During  the  second  year,  practice  is  given  in 
games  and  field  sports.  Not  until  the  third  year  is 
any  work  offered  in  theory  and  it  is  limited  to  the 
regulations  governing  athletic  and  gymnastic  com- 
petitions, construction  and  equipment  of  athletic 
grounds  and  administration  and  management.  Prac- 
tice work  is  provided  in  running,  jumping,  hurdling, 
shot  put,  field  sports,  out-of-door  games,  rowing, 
hockey   and   in    conducting   contests.      This    school 


INSTRUCTORS— THEIR  RESPONSIBILITY     55 

recognizes  the  needs  of  secondary  schools  by  providing 
supplemental  courses  so  that  pupils  may  be  fitted  to 
teach  combination  subjects,  as  English  and  basketball; 
history  and  baseball,  etc.  The  postponement  of  all 
work  in  theory  until  the  last  year,  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  many  do  not  take  the  entire  course,  and  the 
absence  of  fundamental  lectures  are  great  disad- 
vantages. 

C.  During  the  fall  term  of  the  Junior  and  Senior 
years,  one  hour  a  day  for  three  weeks  is  given  to  each 
of  the  games  of  tennis,  field  hockey  and  golf.  Dur- 
ing one  year  a  series  of  lectures  was  given  upon  physi- 
cal training  in  the  public  schools  in  which  the  prob- 
lem of  athletics  for  girls  was  discussed.  This  school 
has  an  outdoor  field  for  field  events,  basketball  and 
hockey.  The  pupils  are  organized  into  an  athletic 
association  which  conducts  the  in  and  outdoor  athletic 
meets,  under  the  supervision  of  the  director  of  the 
school.  The  catalogue  also  announces  a  special  course 
for  those  who  wish  to  become  physical  directors  in 
Young  Women's  Christian  Association  work,  as  fol- 
lows :  "  Conditions  that  have  demanded  this  work ;  its 
beginnings  and  development,  and  the  actual  present 
conditions  ( illustrated  by  charts )  ;  comparison  with 
school  and  college  work;  aims  and  methods  of  work; 
qualifications  needed  in  physical  directors ;  possibili- 
ties of  development  and  advancement  for  the  physical 
director ;  the  future  of  this  department  of  the  Y.  W. 
C.  A." 

D.  This  school  provides  thirty  hours  of  work  per 
year  which  include  lectures  on  the  rules  of  games  and 


66     VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

practice  in  basketball,  baseball,  hockey,  cricket,  etc. 
During  the  last  two  weeks  of  each  year  the  Juniors 
are  taken  to  an  adjacent  field,  where  they  are  practice 
material  for  the  Seniors  who  instruct  them.  An  in- 
door and  outdoor  meet  are  held,  in  which  the  Juniors 
enter  as  contestants  and  the  Seniors  run  off  the 
events.  The  Juniors  are  not  required  to  practise  for 
these  events.  Most  of  this  work  is  crowded  into  a 
short  time  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  the  practice 
of  taking  charge  of  field  athletics  gives  just  enough 
work  to  enable  pupils  to  say  that  they  have  had  ex- 
perience and  received  training. 

Contrast  with  these  what  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  offers  in 
its  special  school  to  fit  officers  for  its  work.  It  em- 
phasizes the  community  value  of  games  and  especially 
provides  courses  in  construction,  location  and  equip- 
ment of  gymnasia;  object,  organization,  administra- 
tion and  relation  of  physical  work  to  other  Y.  M.  C. 
A.  work;  organization,  grading  of  classes  and  con- 
duct of  classes ;  qualifications,  duties  and  relationship 
of  physical  directors ;  and  the  philosophy  of  physical 
training,  school  gymnastics  and  public  playgrounds. 
There  is  a  course  on  amateur  athletics  which  includes 
organization  and  management  and  a  course  on  the 
history  and  literature  of  physical  training.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  work  in  theory,  thorough  practice  and 
training  are  given  in  playing  games.  The  educa- 
tional and  moral  values  of  athletics  for  various 
groups,  as  boys,  workingmen,  students,  etc.,  are  em- 
phasized. Group  contests  are  given  special  attention 
in  both  theory  and  practice.    A  course  has  also  been 


INSTRUCTORS— THEIR  RESPONSIBILITY     57 

added  on  social  service.  Tlie  work  of  this  school  is 
given  in  detail  in  the  hope  that  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  settle- 
ment associations  or  other  public-spirited  organiza- 
tions will  see  the  necessity  of  establishing  a  school  for 
social  workers  of  cities,  which  will  include  physical 
training  along  similar  broad  fundamental  lines. 

Summer  Schools. — A  number  of  summer  schools 
have  departments  of  physical  education  which  offer  in- 
struction in  athletics.  The  following  course  was  given 
by  the  writers  in  a  six-week  period:  Meaning  and 
values  of  games ;  principles  of  coaching ;  basketball — 
theory  and  team  work;  instructing  green  squads; 
contests — their  place  and  management ;  hockey — ■ 
theory  and  team  work;  indoor  baseball — theory  and 
team  work ;  some  problems  and  conditions  in  athletics 
for  women.  In  addition,  arrangement  was  made  for 
demonstration  periods  when  the  different  games  were 
taught  according  to  the  theory  given.  The  students 
were  also  taught  to  play.  Lectures  on  track  and  field 
events  and  practice  were  given  and  additional  work 
offered  to  pupils  who  were  interested  in  special 
games.  Examinations  in  both  theory  and  practice 
were  required  before  the  student  received  any  credit. 

Another  summer  school  offers  two  courses,  one  on 
the  "  Principles  of  Physical  Education "  and  the 
other  on  "  The  Theory  of  Play."  Practice  is  also 
given  in  track  and  field  events,  baseball  and  basket- 
ball. The  short  course  makes  it  impossible  to  give 
much  work  and  is  primarily  intended  for  public 
school  teachers. 

In  a  third  school  the  work  is  arranged  so  that  it 


58  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

may  cover  four  summers.  It  is  similar  to  that  previ- 
ously described  under  B.  A  distinction  not  em- 
phasized in  other  summer  schools  is  the  following: 

"  Although  many  of  the  courses  may  be  taken  in 
common  by  men  and  women,  it  has  been  deemed  advis- 
able to  limit  the  heavier  forms  of  gymnastics,  athletics 
and  antagonistic  exercises  to  men,  while  the  lighter 
calisthenics,  Delsarte  exercises,  elementary  apparatus 
work  and  esthetic  dancing  are  adapted  and  confined 
largely  to  women.  Where  men  are  expected  to  in- 
struct women,  and  women  are  called  upon  to  teach  men 
and  boys,  as  is  the  case  in  many  of  the  State  Normal 
Schools,  a  judicious  selection  from  both  programs  will  be 
allowed  in  order  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
teacher's  position." 

The  difficulty  with  this  arrangement  is  that  many 
do  not  know  whether  they  are  to  teach  boys  or  girls 
until  they  obtain  their  positions  and  thus  may  not 
elect  theory  of  athletics  and  practice.  Later,  not- 
withstanding this,  they  take  charge  of  athletics  and 
*'  antagonistic  exercises." 

In  a  fourth  summer  school  there  is  a  department  of 
physical  training  which  offers  only  such  limited  work 
as  "  special  instruction  in  the  theory  and  practice 
of  basketball  and  hockey." 

There  are  other  schools  of  physical  education 
which  do  not  provide  any  work  whatever  in  athletics. 
One  was  organized  a  half-century  ago,  and  has  a 
long  list  of  graduates  and  pupils  who  hold  high 
school  positions  where  athletics  are  permitted. 

Defects  in  Methods  of  Schools  of  Physical  Edu- 
cation.— The  absence  (1)  of  graded,  systematic  and 


INSTRUCTORS— THEIR  RESPONSIBILITY    69 

consecutive  work  throughout  the  year;  (2)  of  funda- 
mental lecture  work  on  the  history,  theory,  place  and 
influence  of  athletics ;  (3)  of  discussions  of  the  organ- 
ization and  administration  of  athletics  and  their  rela- 
tion to  the  school  plan ;  ( 4 )  of  all  reference  to  play- 
grounds, recreation  centers  and  other  social  move- 
ments, which  employ  trained  teachers;  and  (5)  of 
special  consideration  of  the  problems  which  athletics 
for  women  present,  shows  clearly  that  these  schools 
are  not  meeting  the  demand  for  trained  instructors. 

Little  or  no  attempt  is  made  to  train  pupils  to  be- 
come good  officials,  although  every  instructor  has  to 
officiate  at  contests.  Officials,  quite  as  much  as  in- 
structors, have  not  only  a  responsibility  to  those  who 
engage  them  but  also  to  the  community  for  making 
good  or  bad  citizens,  according  to  the  standard  they 
set  and  to  the  fairness  of  their  decisions.  Women 
are  not  used  to  positions  requiring  instantaneous 
judgment  based  on  accuracy  of  observation  and  fair- 
ness, and  many  blunders  costly  to  the  cause  of  good 
sport  result. 

Schools  of  physical  education  should  be  given  full 
credit  for  valuable  training  in  such  subjects  as  physi- 
ology, anatomy,  hygiene,  psychology,  anthropometry 
and  pedagogy — which  are  intended  to  and  do  make 
the  pupil  intelligent  upon  the  care  and  use  of  the 
body.  But  this  special  training  may  fall  on  barren 
soil,  owing  to  the  varying  entrance  requirements. 
The  least  that  can  be  required  is  a  high-school  train- 
ing or  its  "  equivalent."  While  most  schools  insist 
upon  this,  the  substitutions  permitted  under  the  head 


60  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

of  "  equivalents  "  do  not  always  constitute  a  general 
education  on  which  specialization  can  be  well  founded. 
The  greatest  defect  of  such  schools,  however,  is  the 
almost  total  absence  of  any  realization  of  their  respon- 
sibility to  teach  athletics  as  a  branch  of  education  and 
of  any  emphasis  upon  their  value  as  a  means  of  social 
education.  Many  teachers  are  called  to  settlements, 
social  education  institutions,  playgrounds,  etc.,  with 
little  or  no  idea  of  their  aim  or  methods  or  of  their 
place  in  the  social  structure.  Sociology  is  in  no  case 
included  among  the  subjects  of  training.  It  is  a 
serious  question  whether  a  special  effort  should  not 
be  made  to  include  these  when  so  many  women  are 
entering  this  field,  who  ordinarily  have  not  a  fund  of 
general  information  which  enables  them  to  take  a 
broader  view  of  their  work  than  as  a  means  to  an  end. 
It  is  for  this,  among  other  reasons,  that  so  many 
instructors  live  within  a  narrow  horizon  and  lose 
their  perspective  and  the  relation  of  their  work  to 
citizenship  and  progress.  One  leader  in  physical 
education  says :  ^  ' 


"  I  find  few  among  my  professional  brethren  who  have 
any  far-reaching  interest  beyond  their  specialty,  few 
whose  hearts  throb  in  unison  with  the  great  movements 
of  the  time.  I  see  men  and  women  whose  minds  only 
revolve  around  drills  and  exercises,  lessons  and  exhibi- 
tions, visits  of  the  superintendent  and  rules  of  the  board 
of  education,  the  return  of  payday,  the  possibility  of 
advancement,  the  victory  of  yesterday  and  the  contest 
of  to-morrow." 

» Jakob  Bolin,  "  Mind  and  Body,"  Vol.  XIV,  p.  234. 


INSTRUCTORS— THEIR  RESPONSIBILITY     61 

So  long  as  these  conditions  exist,  schools  of  physi- 
cal education  constitute  the  greatest  obstruction  to 
the  adoption  of  athletics  as  a  part  of  the  educational 
system  and  to  raising  its  standard  above  the  plane 
of  commercial  competition.  It  is  not  a  question  of 
their  disapproving  of  or  restraining  athletics,  for 
beyond  all  power  of  their  control,  it  is  settled  that 
girls  will  play — ^just  as  settled  as  that  women  will 
work.  The  question  is,  will  these  schools  become  an 
intelligent  force  in  creating  and  maintaining  a  high 
standard  of  athletics  or  will  they  belittle,  exclude  or 
ignore  them  and  confuse  the  public  mind  as  to  their 
value,  because  they  are  not  strong  enough  to  meet  the 
problem  of  their  danger? 

Schools  of  Elocution  and  Oratory. — While  these 
do  not  ordinarily  profess  to  train  instructors  in  ath- 
letics, as  a  matter  of  fact  many  of  their  graduates 
are  required  to  take  charge  of  them  in  conjunction 
with  other  subjects  of  instruction.  Furthermore,  in 
many  private  schools  their  training  is  considered  suffi- 
cient, and  their  graduates  are  unhesitatingly  accepted 
as  teachers.  In  reality  they  offer  no  instruction  what- 
ever in  either  the  theory  or  practice  of  athletics. 
Furthermore,  their  training  is  opposed  to  social  edu- 
cation. Oratory,  Delsarte,  vocal  expression,  dra- 
matics, music,  reading,  etc.,  and  the  emphasis  placed 
upon  presence,  grace,  poise,  are  intensely  individual- 
istic. Valuable  as  these  are,  they  do  not  train  teach- 
ers to  develop  group  qualities  in  players.  Even  when 
courses  are  offered  in  physiology,  anatomy  and  psy- 
chology, they  retain  their  individualistic  stamp,  as 


62  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

where  psychology  is  made  to  mean  chiefly  "  psychic 
development  "  or  "  soul  expression." 

Our  purpose  is  not  to  criticise  these  schools,  but 
merely  to  point  out  the  necessity  for  avoiding  a  con- 
fusion of  teachers  of  "  physical  culture,"  trained  in 
schools  of  elocution,  with  instructors  of  physical  edu- 
cation who  are  capable  of  teaching  gymnastics  and 
athletics  as  a  means  of  social  education  and  as  a  basis 
for  health  and  recreation. 

Normal  Schools. — A  number  of  normal  schools, 
including  some  of  the  best  in  the  country,  have  prac- 
tice classes  and  frequently  maintain  teams  which  play 
match  games  with  other  schools.  But  none  of  those 
answering  our  inquiry  maintains  courses  of  instruc- 
tion in  athletics.  Basketball  is  usually  the  one  game 
played,  though  hockey  is  growing  in  favor.  Gradu- 
ates of  these  normal  schools  are  constantly  required 
to  teach  "  main  subjects,"  as  history,  English,  etc., 
and  to  take  charge  of  basketball  and  other  games. 

Universities  and  Colleges. — These  also  supply 
teachers,  but  few  maintain  courses  in  athletics.  One 
of  the  best  offers  a  course  in  physical  education  which 
includes  personal  hygiene,  school  hygiene,  gymnastics 
(several  courses),  anatomy,  anthropometry,  diag- 
nosis, corrective  exercises,  history  of  physical  educa- 
tion and  kinesiology.  Notwithstanding  this  broad 
outline,  only  practice  is  offered  in  athletics  and  funda- 
mental theory  work  is,  as  usual,  absent.  Ordinarily 
the  course  in  colleges  gives  a  working  knowledge  of 
games,  though  they  are  in  all  cases  elective  while 
gymnastics  are  required.     So  the  8tu4ent  may  under- 


INSTRUCTORS— THEIR  RESPONSIBILITY    63 

take  to  give  instruction  upon  the  representation  of  so 
many  years  of  "  gymnasium  work  "  without  having 
had  any  practice  in  athletics  or  any  theory,  or  lec- 
tures on  such  subjects  as  anatomy,  physiology  or 
hygiene. 

It  is  a  common  occurrence  for  universities  to  re- 
ceive a  request  like  this  from  its  students  or  gradu- 
ates :  "  A  good  position  has  been  offered  me  to  teach 

history  and  English  in  X high  school,  but  I  have 

to  teach  physical  culture  too.  Can  you  send  me  good 
books  on  the  subject  or  make  suggestions.''  I  wish 
now  I  had  taken  some  athletics  while  in  college."  The 
college  can  do  much  to  raise  the  standard  by  refus- 
ing to  recommend  its  untrained  students  for  teachers' 
positions. 

Sometimes  colleges  undertake  to  add  physical  edu- 
cation departments  without  understanding  the  situa- 
tion. One  Southern  college  for  women  makes  this 
announcement : 

"  With  the  growing  interest  in  out-of-door  sports 
throughout  the  country  there  has  come  an  increasing  de- 
mand for  trained  teachers  of  athletics.  It  is  our  pur- 
pose to  prepare  teachers  to  intelligently  direct  this 
department." 

Then  follows  an  outline  of  a  two  years'  course,  con- 
sisting entirely  of  gymnastics  with  this  one  provision 
for  athletics: 

"  Students  desiring  this  certificate  must  have  one  year 
of  physiology  and  hygiene  and  two  seasons'  work  on  the 
hockey   team.       In   addition   all   the   students    are   or- 


64  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

ganized   into   an   athletic   league   having  for  its  object 
the  control  of  the  sports." 


Employing  Schools. — It  is  undoubtedly  true  that 
the  present  standard  of  athletics  is,  in  a  large  meas- 
ure, due  to  the  foresight  and  conservative  atti- 
tude of  some  of  the  institutions  that  train  teachers, 
and  some  have  shown  much  courage  in  preventing  un- 
qualified persons  from  entering  the  profession.  But 
this  is  not  true  of  all  and  should  not  relieve  the  em- 
ploying school  of  its  responsibility.  It  has  in  too  many 
instances  been  content  to  rely  upon  the  reputation  of 
the  training  school  and  to  assume  that  having  a 
graduate  or  pupil  of  this  or  that  school  left  nothing 
more  to  be  desired.  The  employing  school  can  assist 
in  maintaining  high  standards  in  the  following  ways : 
Before  engaging  an  instructor,  it  should  know  fully 
what  her  training  has  been,  see  her  credentials  and 
know  personally  that  she  is  what  she  is  represented  to 
be.  In  order  to  select  teachers  intelligently,  heads  of 
employing  schools  need  to  know  the  requirements  of 
the  position  and  not  ignore  or  belittle  the  work  as  is 
sometimes  done.  For  instance,  from  private  schools 
frequently  come  such  requests  as  this :  "  Can  you  send 
me  some  one  qualified  to  teach  mathematics  and  his- 
tory, stating  her  experience.''  She  must  also  take 
charge  of  basketball." 

Increased  care  in  the  selection  of  teachers  is  also 
made  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  employing  school 
because  deceptions  are  sometimes  practised  upon 
them.     In  their  competitive  desire  to  place  teachers, 


INSTRUCTORS— THEIR  RESPONSIBILITY     65 

some  training  schools  are  likely  to  recommend  pupils, 
thinking  they  are  more  capable  than  they  really  are. 
Again,  pupils  in  their  desire  to  obtain  positions  are 
unsportsmanlike  in  trading  upon  the  names  of  well- 
known  instructors  and  training  schools,  and  thus 
hurt  those  who  really  desire  to  place  only  competent 
teachers.  A  person  who  has  made  charts  or  kept 
class  lists  or  schedules  of  swimming  or  has  recorded 
measurements  taken  by  prominent  instructors  will 
advertise  herself  in  school  catalogues  and  letters  as 

"  assistant  to  Dr.  X "  or  as  assistant  in  "  School 

A ,"  when  she  knows  nothing  of  the  principles 

for  which  they  stand  and  was  not  selected  by  them  be- 
cause of  general  proficiency.  Others  attend  athletic 
practices  on  the  note-book  plan  but  do  not  hesitate  to 
say  they  have  "  taken  the  work."  Such  pupils  have 
missed  the  training  which  develops  modesty  and  gives 
a  sense  of  proportionate  value.  This  dishonesty  may 
be  prevented  by  employing  schools  exercising  more 
care  and  by  instructors  and  schools  combining  to 
raise  the  standard  and  punish  misrepresentation.  It 
is  true  misrepresentations  occur  in  all  lines  of  teach- 
ing, but  the  person  who  obtains  a  position  in  athletics 
in  this  way  is  hardly  one  to  use  games  to  bring  out 
the  noblest  qualities. 

Summary — In  a  word,  then,  if  women  are  to  re- 
ceive social  education,  by  means  of  athletics  as  a  part 
of  their  general  training,  the  prime  essentials  are  well- 
qualified  instructors  who  have  received  broad,  funda- 
mental training  in  schools  of  physical  education ;  a 
higher    standard   of    athletics    maintained   by    these 


66  VALUE  OF  ATHLETIC  GAMES 

schools ;  and  greater  care  and  honesty  in  recommenda- 
tions as  well  as  greater  intelligence  and  discrimina- 
tion on  the  part  of  employing  schools.  Without 
these,  athletics  may  never  rise  above  competitive 
games  played  to  win — where  and  how  players  choose. 


PART  II 
PRESENT  CONDITIONS 


CHAPTER  IV 

ATHLETICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

HIGH    SCHOOLS 

The  increasing  participation  of  high  school  girls 
in  basketball  and  other  athletic  games  led  the  writers 
to  make  an  inquiry  into  the  condition  in  high  schools. 
Owing  to  the  lack  of  supervision  by  school  authorities 
and  the  great  variations  in  the  control  of  athletics, 
it  was  difficult  to  obtain  a  satisfactory  and  representa- 
tive view  of  the  situation.  The  material  gathered  is 
therefore  presented  quite  as  much  in  the  hope  of 
stimulating  further  investigations  as  for  the  purpose 
of  urging  the  adoption  of  a  more  uniform  system  of 
control. 

A  discouraging  number  of  schools  provide  athletics 
for  boys  but  none  for  girls.  Among  the  others  two 
extremes  are  apparent.  In  the  first  group,  there 
is  an  absence  of  school  regulation,  no  object  other 
than  to  win  games,  and  the  whole  matter  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  girls  or  of  the  "  professional  coach." 
In  the  second,  all  use  of  the  school  gymnasia  or  of 
the  school  name  by  teams  is  forbidden.  Schools  out- 
side of  these  two  groups  adopt  various  plans,  as  for 
instance  that  of  placing  athletics  under  the  super- 
vision of  an  outside  organization  such  as  a  public 

Gd 


70  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

school  athletic  league,  or  permitting  pupils  to  practise 
wherever  they  can  find  a  place  and  to  maintain  teams 
under  the  school  name.  Wide  variations  in  control 
are  found  sometimes  in  cities  where  the  schools  them- 
selves are  all  under  one  management. 

Conditions  in  Schools. — Nowhere  else  are  to  be 
found  such  contrasts,  lack  of  system  and  absence  of 
intelligent  supervision  as  in  high  schools.  This  is 
best  shown  by  some  of  the  answers  to  our  inquiries : 

"  The  girls  who  play  basketball  are  formed  into  an 
athletic  association.  The  school  asked  me  to  take 
charge  of  the  games,  which  I  did.  I  found  that  I  had 
no  official  position,  the  school  no  power,  and  that  the 
girls  had  entire  control.  They  practised  in  an  armory 
twice  each  week,  coaching  themselves  or  paying  a  man 
to  come  in  for  extra  practices.  They  averaged  one  com- 
petitive game  each  week  with  other  teams,  during  the 
season.  There  were  no  examinations  made  of  the  girls 
and  they  played  at  all  times  and  would  not  submit  to 
any  withdrawal  from  contests.  The  permission  to  play 
games  and  the  challenges  passed  through  the  principal's 
hands,  but  there  was  no  restriction,  and  no  teacher  was 
required  to  attend  the  games,  although  the  girls  made 
journeys  frequently  to  other  towns  to  play  high  school 
teams.  They  would  start  off  attended  by  groups  of 
boys  and  often  return  late  at  night. 

"  The  games  were  always  public  and  many  were 
played  in  the  evening.  Any  one  who  paid  for  his  ticket 
could  attend.  We  frequently  played  double  headers — 
the  girls'  teams  would  play  one  half,  then  the  boys'  team- 
one  half,  etc.  If  both  the  boys'  team  and  the  girls' 
team  from  the  same  town  won,  they  took  all  the  gate 
receipts,  otherwise  it  was  divided.  In  this  way  the 
teams  covered  expenses  and  divided  the  surplus  if  there 
was  any.  The  game  was  usually  followed  by  a  dance 
at  one  of  the  men's  clubs  or  in  the  hall  where  the  games 


ATHLETICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS     71 

were  played.  If  in  the  haU,  the  men  in  the  audience 
indiscriminately  joined  in  the  dance.  These  games 
were  characterized  by  much  unfairness  and  scrapping. 
Coaches  ran  up  and  down  the  side  lines  giving  instruc- 
tions, roughness  was  unchecked,  and  the  players  boasted 
of  their  ability  to  trip  players  and  not  be  seen  owing  to 
their  baggy  suits,  or  afterwards  described  mean  tricks 
that  had  won  the  game." 

"  We  have  no  department  nor  gymnasium,  but  the  girls 
play  basketball,  though  not  in  the  name  of  the  school." 

"  We  have  no  gymnasium  or  instructor,  but  the  girls 
have  a  basketball  team,  which  is  partly  regulated." 

"  The  captain  and  girls  have  charge  of  basketball 
and  use  the  gymnasium  twice  each  week.  The  school 
has  nothing  to  do  with  the  matter.  The  girls  belong  to 
an  inter-school  athletic  league  which  runs  the  contests." 

"  The  manager  of  the  debating  society  has  charge  of 
the  games." 

"  The  county  league  arranges  all  details  of  contests, 
players,  etc." 

So  far  as  it  is  possible  to  make  any  general  state- 
ment summarizing  the  conditions,  the  following  seems 
to  be  fair: 

The  instructors  were  mostly  "  coaches,"  engaged 
by  the  girls  to  win  games,  and  were  often  without  aca- 
demic or  special  training.  Where  instructors  also 
taught  other  subjects,  they  were  often  untrained  in 
athletics  or  did  not  take  them  seriously.  Where  mem- 
bers of  the  faculty  were  placed  on  executive  commit- 
tees and  boards  of  control  of  county  and  inter- 
scholastic  leagues,  they  frequently  had  no  general  or 
technical  knowledge  of  athletics,  and  lacking  a  veto 


72  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

power  had  little  authority.  Athletics  had  little  or  no 
part  in  the  educational  system,  and  were  rather  looked 
upon  as  exerting  a  harmful  influence  upon  studies 
and  the  general  intellectual  work  of  the  school.  In 
many  schools  there  was  not  only  no  relation  between 
gymnastics  and  athletics,  but  in  some  there  was  con- 
stant disagreement  between  the  gymnastic  instructor 
and  "  coach  "  as  to  who  should  use  the  gymnasium. 
Eligibility  to  teams  was  in  a  few  instances  based  upon 
academic  standing,  while  in  others  this  was  true  only 
in  theory.  In  most  cases,  contests  being  outside  the 
control  of  the  school,  academic  standing  was  not 
considered  at  all.  General  ignorance  existed  on  the 
part  of  school  authorities  and  parents  as  to  what  was 
going  on.  The  officials  were  chiefly  men,  and  with 
few  exceptions  the  games  were  open  to  everybody. 
Many  favored  pay  games  and  as  a  rule  prizes  were 
off'ered.  The  captain,  "  coach "  or  girls  selected 
the  teams,  and  physical  examinations  and  tests  played 
no  part  in  this  selection.  Where  leagues  and  associa- 
tions existed  they  were  primarily  for  the  purpose  of 
increasing  and  managing  competition  and  for  raising 
money. 

The  returns  from  the  various  high  schools  showed 
a  general  neglect  of  such  fundamental  matters  as 
preliminary  gymnastics,  relation  of  athletics  to  diet, 
rest  and  study,  limitations  of  practice  periods,  and  of 
excessive  physical  exertion  and  high  nervous  tension. 
In  some  instances  from  five  to  twenty  match  games 
were  played  during  a  season,  interfering  with  study 
and  causing  over-exertion  on  the  part  of  the  girls. 


ATHLETICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS     73 

The  increase  in  professionalism  was  clearly  indicated. 
This  is  detrimental  to  moral  growth,  since  no  standard 
is  set  before  the  players  except  to  win  by  fair  or  foul 
means;  and  to  refinement  of  feeling,  because  of  the 
bad  spirit  engendered.  Furthermore,  in  some  schools 
the  monopoly  of  the  gymnasium  by  the  teams  prevents 
the  mass  of  girls  from  receiving  adequate  physical 
training. 

Undoubtedly,  even  under  these  conditions,  consider- 
able experience  is  gained,  but  it  may  be  bad  or  good, 
and  in  either  case  it  is  at  great  physical  cost.  It  is 
not  infrequent  to  see  young  girls  collapse  in  these 
high  school  contests.  A  typical  list  of  refreshments 
eaten  between  the  halves  of  a  hard  game  or  immedi- 
ately afterward  includes  pie,  cream  puffs,  chocolate 
eclairs  or  charlotte  russe,  varied  with  peanuts  and 
popcorn ;  and  a  championship  contest  is  often  fol- 
lowed immediately  by  hours  of  dancing.  High  school 
contests  are  also  conspicuous  for  the  bad  spirit  shown. 
Attacks  upon  officials,  wrangling  of  teams,  calling  of 
names,  bitter  denunciatory  remarks  about  opponents, 
intentional  roughness,  fault-finding,  "  rattling  of 
players  "  by  school  girl  or  boy  audiences,  and  per- 
sonal characterizations  are  common  in  games  where 
players  alone  are  in  control. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  schools  where  such  con- 
ditions do  not  prevail,  but  this  is  a  fair  statement  of 
general  conditions,  and  is  indicative  of  the  growing 
tendency,  especially  in  schools  of  the  Middle  West. 
Wherever  these  conditions  did  not  prevail,  we  found 
not  only  that  the  school  authorities  had  a  voice  in  the 


74  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

management  of  contests  but  that  they  maintained 
some  supervision  of  practice  periods. 

The  responsibility  for  these  conditions  rests  prima- 
rily with  school  authorities,  but  also  with  parents  who 
do  not  insist  upon  proper  regulations.  That  many 
of  the  former  recognize  the  need  for  improvement  the 
following  replies  show: 

"  This  year  I  made  two  stands — first,  that  of  the 
requirement  of  a  physician's  certificate  for  basketball 
practice,  and  second,  the  prohibition  of  practising  or 
playing  during  menstrual  periods.  These  two  points 
are  not  insisted  upon  in  all  our  high  schools  and  I  have 
seen  some  girls  collapse  on  field  and  suffer  illness  of 
days  from  lack  of  oversight  on  part  of  coach,  physician 
or  mother.  Lack  of  observance  of  a  girl's  condition  is 
sometimes  amazing.  I  believe  that  every  coach  should 
be  merely  assistant  to  the  physical  training  instructor — 
the  latter  having  full  charge  of  every  phase  of  work. 
This  for  development  of  physical,  moral,  social  qualities 
of  girls." 

"  I  regret  to  say  that  no  provision  at  all  is  as  yet 
made  for  the  girls.  As  regards  teams  and  match  games 
among  girls,  I  am  fully  convinced  that  great  care  is 
necessary  in  the  selection  of  girls  for  such  teams  and 
as  to  procedure  in  such  contests.  In  my  judgment  no 
match  games  between  girls  of  different  schools  should 
be  permitted.  I  should  encourage  games  between  girls 
of  the  same  school ;  I  would  restrict  admission  to  invita- 
tion. We  hope  that  we  can  have  physical  training  for 
our  girls  in  the  near  future  under  a  competent  in- 
structor." 

"  Organized  games  in  the  open  air  take  the  place  of 
formal  gymnastics  for  one  half  of  the  school  year. 
These  games  are  not  optional  but  are  a  part  of  the 
regular  school  work  and  taught  by  the  physical  training 
teachers.     Girls  are  not  asked  whether  or  not  they  wish 


ATHLETICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS     75 

to  play;  all  the  twenty- four  hundred  play  except  the 
very  few  excused  for  good  reasons  by  a  physician.  As 
far  as  can  be  arranged,  each  class  has  two  forty-five- 
minute  periods  weekly  during  school  hours  for  this  pur- 
pose in  the  last  ten  weeks  in  the  spring  and  the  first  ten 
weeks  in  the  fall.  Four  teachers  and  four  classes  may 
be  seen  in  the  yard  during  most  of  every  day." 

"  We  have  considered  the  question  of  athletics  for 
girls  and  passed  the  following:  '  Resolved  that  all  inter- 
scholastic  competition  is  unwise  under  the  present  condi- 
tions ;  that  the  same  results  can  be  obtained  by  inter- 
class  games ;  thus  avoiding  all  the  adverse  conditions  and 
results  of  inter-school  contests.'  We  also  took  a  stand 
against  all  publicity." 

Public  School  Athletic  Leagues. — A  movement 
which  is  regarded  as  a  solution  of  some  of  these  prob- 
lems takes  the  form  of  public  school  athletic  leagues. 
A  girls'  branch  was  started  in  New  York  City  in 
1905,  and  is  maintained  by  a  group  of  public-spirited 
citizens  along  the  following  lines : 

"  First — That  it  has  to  do  with  the  pupil's  free  time 
rather-  than  with  school  activities.  Second — That, 
in  the  nature  of  the  case,  participation  must  be  wholly 
voluntary.  Third — That  it  might  be  possible  to  co- 
operate more  perfectly  with  existing  athletic  organiza- 
tions, both  in  and  outside  of  this  school  system,  than 
would  be  possible  if  the  organization  were  official. 
Fourth — For  financial  reasons,  for  while  public  senti- 
ment and  precedents  with  reference  to  the  support  of 
athletics  remain  as  they  are,  it  would  hardly  be  possible 
to  secure  from  the  Board  of  Education,  nor  would  it  be 
justified  in  appropriating  the  very  considerable  sums 
needed  for  the  development  of  these  athletics.  If  the 
League  were  officially  under  the  Board  of  Education  it 
would  not  be  possible  to  solicit  funds  for  the  support  of 


76  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

the  League,  charge  admission  to  games,  give  prizes  hav- 
ing intrinsic  value  and  the  like.  Fifth — It  seems  neces- 
sary that  there  be  an  organization  in  addition  to  those 
which  are  carried  on  by  pupils  themselves,  because  the 
financial  and  administrative  problems  in  such  a  city  as 
New  York  are  altogether  too  great  to  be  handled  success- 
fully by  the  comparatively  inexperienced  and  rapidly 
changing  group  of  pupils.  This  must  be  done  by  a  body 
having  the  financial  confidence  of  the  business  men  of  the 
community,  and  of  the  school  authorities  themselves."  ^ 

The  aim  is  stated  as  follows: 

"  To  devise  and  promote  athletics  for  girls  which  will 
make  for  health,  stamina  and  grace  in  the  elementary, 
high  and  collegiate  departments  of  public  educational 
institutions  of  the  City.  To  encourage  the  development 
of  forms  of  exercise  and  recreation  suited  to  the  needs 
of  the  mass  of  schoolgirls,  and  which  will  secure  for 
them  the  benefits  and  avoid  the  evils  which  have  been 
developed  in  connection  with  athletics  for  men.  The 
general  principle  followed  by  the  Girls'  Branch  is  to 
develop  work  within  the  school  rather  than  competition 
between  schools,  and  to  select  events  in  which  teams 
rather  than  individuals  may  compete."  ^ 

Active  membership  is  based  on  subscriptions  and 

honorary  members  are  elected.     Membership  confers 

no  ownership  in  any  property.     The  management  is 

vested  in  a  board  of  directors,  elected  at  the  annual 

meeting  of  members,  and  consists  of  not  more  than 

forty-eight  persons.     An  executive  committee  has  all 

the  powers  of  the  board  of  directors  when  the  latter 

is  not  in  session.     Tlie  president  may  appoint  a  game 

committee  to  consist  of  three  directors  which  shall 

have  charge  of  all  games  authorized  by  the  League. 

'  Report  of  Board  of  Education,  1906. 

'  Report  of  New  York  City  Athletic  League,  1906. 


ATHLETICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS     77 

It  is  the  policy  to  provide  trophies  for  which  the  vari- 
ous classes  compete.  These  consist  of  bronze  plaques, 
silver  cups,  etc.  Some  of  the  girls  are  organized  into 
various  leagues  which  contest  for  these  prizes,  as  do 
also  the  various  classes.  A  League  pin  also  is  to  be 
presented  to  each  public  school  girl  who  is  able  to  pass 
certain  prescribed  qualifications. 

For  admission  to  classes  every  girl  must  have  at- 
tended school  for  one  month  and  must  have  received 
the  mark  of  "  B  "  for  the  month  previous  and  "  A  " 
in  effort  and  deportment.  One  of  the  interesting  and 
valuable  features  is  the  method  of  training  teachers. 
The  Girls'  Branch  offers  : 

"  A  course  of  dancing  and  athletics,  free  of  expense, 
to  public  school  teachers,  who  will  give  in  return  one 
lesson  per  week  to  girls  of  the  schools  from  which  the 
teachers  severally  come.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  and 
one  significant  of  the  benefit  and  pleasure  derived  by 
them  from  this  training,  that  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  teachers  with  endless  demands  upon  their  strength 
and  time  should  voluntarily  elect  to  attend  these  free 
classes,  and  give  in  return  an  equal  amount  of  time  to 
the  instruction  of  girls  of  their  own  schools,  thus  giving 
up  two  afternoons  each  week  to  the  work." 

The  Public  School  Athletic  League  of  Cleveland, 
which  is  still  limited  to  boys,  differs  in  its  organization 
in  that  it  is  within  the  school  and  is  controlled  by  a 
Senate  which  consists  of  the  supervisor  of  physical 
training,  two  members  from  the  faculty  of  each  high 
school,  and  one  representative  from  each  elementary 
school.  The  high  school  members  are  appointed  by 
the  principal  of  the  school  and  may  be  retired  by  him. 


78  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

The  funds  are  raised  by  a  finance  committee  appointed 
by  the  chairman  of  the  Senate.  Membership  in  the 
League  consists  of  such  athletic  organizations  of  the 
public  schools  as  are  approved  by  the  principals  con- 
cerned. Honorary  members  are  elected  and  all  per- 
sons contributing  over  $50  become  patrons. 

Those  interested  in  the  recreative  features  of  ath- 
letics will  find  ample  cause  for  congratulation  in  this 
movement.  On  the  other  hand,  those  interested  in 
social  education  cannot  but  be  disappointed.  We 
have  been  unable  to  find  that  much  emphasis  is  placed 
upon  the  educational  value  of  athletics  for  girls,  or 
that  those  interested  in  the  movement  are  endeavoring 
to  prepare  them  to  meet  the  increasing  social  and 
economic  demands  which  will  be  made  later  after 
they  leave  school.  The  plan  of  excluding  from  classes 
pupils  not  having  an  "  A  "  or  "  B  "  standing,  espe- 
cially in  deportment,  may  shut  out  the  ones  most  in 
need  of  them.  There  is  a  tendency,  made  necessary  to 
some  extent  by  the  limited  space  and  great  numbers  of 
pupils,  to  minimize  the  value  of  organized  games  and 
to  emphasize  dancing  and  class  athletics.  The  com- 
petitive element  and  prizes  are  also  conspicuous. 

At  this  time,  when  the  interest  in  athletics  needs 
stimulation  it  is  perhaps  necessary  that  a  group  of  in- 
terested citizens  should  support  a  work  which  doubt- 
less could  not  otherwise  have  been  started.  But  we 
believe  that  the  principle  should  not  be  lost  sight  of 
that  the  control  and  support  of  this  branch  of  work 
should  rest  with  the  school  system.  The  number  of 
pupils  is  so  great  and  the  educational  possibilities  of 


ATHLETICS  IX  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS     79 

games  so  broad  that  athletics  should  be  included  as 
a  part  of  the  educational  system  and  be  supported 
by  taxation  or  by  gifts  directly  to  school  authorities. 
Their  social  educational  value  is  so  fundamental  that 
their  continuance  should  not  depend  upon  a  philan- 
thropy which  must  vary  with  stock  markets  and  busi- 
ness depressions  and  commercial  fluctuations.  As  the 
best  exponents  of  democracy,  games  should  be  in- 
corporated in  our  most  democratic  of  institutions — 
the  public  school. 

Country  School  Athletic  Leagues. — The  pubhc 
school  athletic  movement  is  not  confined  to  city 
schools.  In  one  state  it  has  been  extended  to  small 
towns  and  country  districts.  One  of  the  normal 
schools  started  the  movement,  and  with  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  district  school  commissioner  conferences 
are  held  which  are  attended  by  children  and  parents. 
It  is  an  all-day  affair  and  practical  demonstrations 
of  school  work  are  given,  including  athletics  in  which 
the  girls  participate.  Besides  fostering  clean  ath- 
letics, it  brings  the  schools  together  at  least  once  each 
year  in  a  field  day  and  picnic.  At  the  second  field 
day  held  by  this  League  there  were  present  1400 
school  children,  200  high  and  normal  school  children 
and  about  1400  adults.  Girls  as  well  as  boys  took 
part  in  the  contests.  Owing  to  the  expense  of  para- 
phernalia, no  very  wide  use  has  been  made  of  the 
highly  organized  games,  but  they  are  to  be  intro- 
duced.^ 

'  Scudder:  "  Field  Day  and  Play  Picnic  for  Country  Children," 
pamph. ,  53  pp. 


80  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

If  the  use  of  athletic  games  can  be  widely  extended 
in  villages  and  small  towns  by  some  such  movement 
within  the  schools  it  will  prove  a  strong  socializing 
influence,  brightening  farm  and  village  life,  and 
training  school  children  in  many  of  the  qualities  neces- 
sary for  group  work  and  useful  citizenship.  Nowhere 
are  the  training  and  play  spirit  more  needed  than 
among  girls  in  small  towns  and  rural  districts.  While 
they  live  more  out  of  doors  and  under  better  condi- 
tions for  health  than  the  children  of  cities,  these  very 
things  tend  to  make  parents  feel  that  play  is  super- 
fluous. Parents  in  rural  districts  are  especially  out 
of  sympathy  with  play,  and  think  if  a  girl  is  strong 
enough  to  work  it  is  enough.  But  the  country  girl 
is  often  unevenly  developed,  and  sometimes  organic- 
ally weak  while  she  is  muscularly  strong,  and  more- 
over needs  the  exhilaration,  interest  and  joy  of  games. 
She  is  perhaps  even  more  individualistic  than  the  city 
girl  and  more  in  need  of  group  training.  Games  in 
small  towns  and  rural  districts  now  possess  little 
variety  and  so  give  little  opportunity  for  team  work. 
Both  the  girl  and  her  parents  need  play,  and  organ- 
ized games  and  country  school  leagues  are  taking  a 
long  step  in  the  right  direction. 

Suggestions  for  Improvement. — On  the  whole, 
notwithstanding  these  and  other  eff'orts  to  improve 
present  conditions,  athletics  in  high  schools  undoubt- 
edly present  serious  dangers.  There  is  the  greatest 
need  for  regulation,  supervision  and  the  relating  of 
athletics  to  other  school  work,  etc.  We  do  not  be- 
lieve this  will  be  brought  about  until  a  thorough  in- 


ATHLETICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS     81 

vestigation  is  made  of  the  subject,  including  a  careful 
and  impartial  study  by  a  well-trained  investigator 
of  existing  methods,  rules,  requirements,  conditions, 
instruction,  practice,  competitive  games,  surround- 
ings, organization,  control,  etc.  If  the  results  of  such 
an  investigation  could  be  laid  before  a  conference 
representing  the  various  boards  of  education  some 
uniform  standard  and  regulations  might  be  adopted. 

In  the  meantime  it  may  be  far  wiser  to  abolish  en- 
tirely or  greatly  restrict  all  athletic  competition  by 
girls  in  high  schools  unless  the  following  minimum 
requirements  are  made:  All  practices  and  contests  to 
be  under  the  control  of  a  trained  instructor  who  is 
approved,  paid  by  and  responsible  to  the  school  au- 
thorities ;  no  girl  permitted  to  play  basketball  with- 
out a  physical  examination  and  unless  she  has  had 
some  previous  setting  up  gymnastic  work;  abolition 
of  pay  games  and  professionalism ;  and  a  wise  restric- 
tion of  the  number  of  interscholastic  contests. 

No  one  wishes  to  see  athletics  for  girls  degenerate 
into  "  win  at  any  cost  "  contests,  and  there  is  yet  time 
to  give  them  their  rightful  place  in  the  high  school 
educational  system,  where  they  are  greatly  needed  for 
training  in  citizenship,  if  the  school  authorities  and 
parents  will  but  take  the  matter  in  hand. 

PRIVATE    SCHOOLS 

Private  schools  present  a  most  important  phase  of 
the  question,  as  their  pupils  have  less  opportunity  for 
social  education  than  girls  in  public  schools.  They 
are  frequently  spoiled  and  petted  at  home  or  have 


82  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

been  so  pampered  with  luxury  that  their  point  of  view 
is  largely  individualistic.  The  opportunity  and  re- 
sponsibility of  the  private  boarding  school  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  public  school,  for  it  has  the  entire 
training  at  an  impressionable  age. 

Whatever  its  size  and  purpose,  wherever  its  loca- 
tion and  no  matter  how  varying  its  methods,  the  func- 
tion of  the  private  school  in  the  educational  system  is 
the  same  from  the  community's  point  of  view,  namely, 
the  development  of  each  girl  as  an  individual  factor, 
as  a  social  factor,  and  increasingly  as  an  industrial 
factor  m  our  civilization;  and  the  development  of  the 
social  as  well  as  individual  conscience.  That  some  of 
them  fail  so  to  regard  their  function  or  fail  in  its 
accomplishment  does  not  in  any  way  change  their 
responsibility  to  the  community  which  makes  this  de- 
mand. Tlie  school  which  considers  that  it  has  no 
obligation  other  than  to  the  pupil  and  her  parents  and 
that  the  community  has  no  interest  in  its  methods  or 
*'  business  with  its  affairs  "  is  not  discharging  its  in- 
debtedness to  the  same  community  which  provides  it 
with  facilities,  protection  and  a  hundred  things  which 
make  its  material  success  possible. 

Conditions  in  Schools. — What  part  have  athletics 
in  meeting  this  opportunity  and  responsibility?  We 
believe  that  the  conditions  found  in  nearly  two  hun- 
dred schools  are  fairly  typical,  since  our  study  has 
covered  every  kind  of  school  in  nearly  every  state,  in- 
cluding the  seminary,  day  school,  boarding  school, 
academy,  co-educational  institution,  small  college  con- 
ducted on  boarding  school  principles,  out  of  town 


ATHLETICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS     83 

school  with  broad  spacious  grounds,  and  the  city 
school  which  uses  its  roof  as  a  playground.  That 
athletics  have  an  increasingly  important  place  in  the 
school  life  is  shown  by  three  things :  increased  athletic 
facilities ;  wide  adoption  of  games  for  recreation ;  and 
the  beginning  of  a  belief  in  their  educational  value. 
Fully  ten  per  cent,  stated  that  they  were  building  new 
gymnasia,  acquiring  grounds  for  games  or  that  they 
had  made  arrangements  to  use  other  gymnasia.  Sixty 
per  cent,  had  some  kind  of  an  indoor  place  for  work, 
but  unfortunately  not  all  made  provision  for  games. 
Indoor  tennis,  ring  hockey,  indoor  baseball,  long- 
ball,  captain-ball,  etc.,  are  therefore  unfortunately 
omitted. 

The  grounds  of  many  schools  afford  good  facilities 
for  such  games.  Seventy  per  cent,  make  provision 
for  games  out  of  doors  and  the  remainder  insist  upon 
walks  or  individual  sports ;  seventy  per  cent,  have  ten- 
nis courts ;  65.7  per  cent,  basketball  courts ;  23.5  per 
cent,  hockey  fields ;  and  nine  per  cent,  provided  for 
baseball.  The  athletic  field  is  also  gaining  a  place, 
and  fifteen  per  cent,  have  real  fields  and  field  days. 
One  city  school  utilizes  its  roof  and  others  maintain 
summer  camps. 

When  the  facilities  have  been  described,  practically 
all  has  been  said  about  athletics  in  many  of  the 
schools.  There  are  exceptions,  but  the  great  ma- 
jority think  they  have  done  enough  when  they  make 
it  possible  for  girls  to  play.  The  prevailing  senti- 
ment is  that  the  function  of  games  is  to  provide 
recreation.     This  is,  however,  a  distinct  gain  within 


84  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

the  last  decade,  for  previously  the  majority  did  not 
even  consider  games  and  much  less  "  athletics  "  as 
deserving  mention  in  their  announcements.  A  few  of 
the  typical  announcements,  taken  at  random  from  the 
catalogues,  show  how  very  limited  the  idea  of  athletic 
training  still  is : 

"  The  object  is  to  develop  strength,  elasticity,  proper 
breathing  and  correct  position  in  walking  and  standing, 
thus  giving  natural  development,  ease  and  grace  of 
manner." 

"  We  mean  by  physical  culture  the  development  and 
refinement  of  the  entire  physical  person  through  cultivat- 
ing it  to  express  the  purpose  and  emotions  of  the  soul." 

"  Our  system  aims  at  co-ordination,  control  and  sym- 
metry rather  than  over-development,  ^provides  for  those 
who  wish  to  build  up  their  physique  and  to  keep  in 
healthful  condition,  and  furnishes  a  series  of  esthetic 
movements  as  a  means  of  obtaining  poise,  grace  and 
suppleness." 

A  second  group  puts  more  emphasis  upon  the 
maintenance  of  health: 

"  Our  effort  is  to  give  enough  physical  culture  to 
maintain  an  excellent  average  of  health." 

"  The  object  in  physical  training  is  all-round  develop- 
ment. In  order  to  work  intelligently  and  avoid  injury 
from  improper  exercise  a  careful  examination  is  made  at 
the  beginning  of  the  year  by  the  medical  examiner. 
The  results  with  the  various  strength  tests  determine  the 
character  and  amount  of  exercise." 

"  We  have  a  teacher,  not  to  emphasize  the  athletic 
side,  but  to  prevent  excess  by  her  presence  and  influence. 
We  also  recognize  the  importance  of  health  and  a  happy 


ATHLETICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS     85 

life  and  believe  it  is  the  foundation  for  the  best  intel- 
lectual work  and  for  strong  character  development." 

In  but  one  case  was  physical  training  decried  as 
"  unladylike,"  but  others  made  it  clear  that  it  was 
merely  tolerated  and  that  a  great  deal  of  ignorance 
exists  as  to  its  value  even  for  purposes  of  recreation. 
Some  of  our  correspondents  thought  because  our  in- 
quiries emphasized  athletics  that  we  were  looking  for 
a  school  or  sanitarium  for  a  delicate  girl,  not  realizing 
that  athletics  should  be  a  normal  part  of  her  training. 
Typical  of  the  replies  of  this  discouraging  group  are 
the  following: 

"  Much  injury  is  done  girls  by  gymnasium  work  in 
groups.  During  this  developing  and  formative  period 
of  a  girl's  life  when  her  strength  is  at  its  lowest  ebb, 
the  general  course  of  work  should  be  entirely  individual. 
Another  means  of  injury  is  this — the  stimulation  and 
competition  natural  in  a  group  of  girls  incites  the  less 
strong  to  overdo  in  order  to  stand  on  a  par  with  the 
others  or  to  excel." 

"  I  should  regard  measurements  as  unwise  and  need- 
less in  the  case  of  any  girl  whose  health  admits  of 
serious  study.  The  place  is  really  a  school,  but  not  in 
any  sense  a  sanitarium." 

"  Encouragement  is  given  to  athletics  so  long  as  they 
do  not  interfere  with  school  work." 

"  Pupils  come  primarily  for  work  and  no  work  time 
can  be  devoted  to  games." 

Some  of  the  schools  make  a  clear  distinction  be- 
tween gymnastics  and  athletics,  the  former  being  re- 
C[uired  and  under   supervision   while   the  latter   are 


86  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

not.  One  instructor  writes :  "  Gymnastic  drills  are 
given  under  competent  instructors  and  the  gym- 
nasium is  open  at  other  times  for  the  recreation  of 
students."  In  co-educational  private  schools  the  fa- 
cilities for  athletics  are  frequently  better,  because  the 
demands  made  by  boys  lead  to  some  recognition  of 
the  needs  of  girls.  But  even  here  girls  have  less  op- 
portunity. One  school  announcement  says :  "  Ath- 
letics receive  proper  attention  but  are  not  carried  to 
excess.  Young  men  are  taught  to  be  manly  and  fair." 
But  no  mention  whatever  is  made  of  their  ethical  or 
other  value  for  girls.  Another  announcement  makes 
this  rather  astounding  statement :  "  He  who  educates 
a  boy  educates  an  individual  merely,  whilst  he  who 
educates  a  girl  educates  a  family." 

Such  statements  as  the  following  show  that  the 
belief  in  the  educational  value  of  games  is  slowly 
growing : 

"  Baseball,  basketball,  captain-ball  and  tennis  are 
popular.  They  teach  quickness  and  loyalty  to  each 
other,  fairness  and  unselfishness  and  earnestness  of 
purpose  and  desire  to  do  one's  best  for  one's  self  and 
team." 

"  We  believe  that  physical  culture  should  be  adapted 
to  the  development  of  girls  and  should  train  the  mind 
to  quick  decision,  alertness  and  poise,  as  well  as  give 
strength  and  grace  to  the  body." 

"  The  aim  of  the  school  is  to  develop  the  girl  ethi- 
cally, mentally  and  physically;  to  teach  her  moderation, 
self-control  and  poise,  to  point  her  to  tlie  perspective 
which  determines  relations  and  responsibilities,  to  enable 
her  to  meet  situations,  to  understand  life  and  to  live." 


ATHLETICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS     87 

"  It  is  perfectly  possible  for  a  girl  who  develops  most 
in  mind  and  body  to  develop  also  in  the  fine  and 
womanly  art  of  being  charming." 

On  the  other  hand,  we  suspect  that  the  schools  are 
somewhat  hampered  in  their  progress  by  the  attitude 
of  parents,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  following  state- 
ment: 

"  We  did  require  gymnastics  and  athletics  of  all  girls, 
but  found  parents  so  indifferent  and  a  physician's  certif- 
icate for  excuse  from  physical  training  so  easy  to  obtain 
in  spite  of  good  results  that  we  reluctantly  gave  it  up  for 
day  pupils." 

Many  parents  do  not  recognize  play  as  an  essential 
part  of  childhood,  while  others  are  afraid  that  their 
daughters  will  be  injured.  Too  often  the  girls  them- 
selves are  lazy  and  are  excused  on  one  pretext  or  an- 
other because  they  do  not  like  the  work.  Instead  of 
supporting  the  school,  pupils,  physician  and  parents 
together  frequently  resort  to  deception  to  obtain  an 
excuse.  If  parents  and  physician  would  make  care- 
ful inquiry  about  the  work,  insist  upon  a  high  stand- 
ard where  poor  work  is  given  and  support  the  school 
in  upholding  a  good  system,  much  more  could  be  ac- 
complished both  for  health  and  character. 

Our  study  shows  two  great  defects :  First,  that  while 
girls  have  opportunity  for  play  they  are  not  taught 
as  is  seen  by  the  qualification  and  attitude  of  instruct- 
ors; and  second,  that  the  use  of  games  is  limited  to 
recreation,  as  is  seen  in  the  methods  of  instruction. 

Instructors — The  first  defect  is  clearly  shown  by 
the  requirements  for  teachers.    It  has  been  difficult  to 


88  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

ascertain  the  training  of  instructors.  In  some  cases 
the  replies  have  been  full ;  in  others  we  have  been  as- 
sured that  the  teachers  "  are  specially  trained,"  while 
no  details  appeared  in  the  catalogue  or  letter.  Or- 
dinarily in  the  private  school  catalogue  the  name  of 
the  physical  training  instructor  appears  near  the  foot 
of  the  list  and  often  without  the  history  which  accom- 
panies in  full  other  teachers.  To  the  lay  mind  the 
school  announcement  may  also  be  misleading.  It 
understands  that  training  in  Latin  means  Latin,  and 
mathematics  means  mathematics,  but  "  physical  cul- 
ture "  may  mean  Delsarte,  oratory,  musical  or  vocal 
expression,  gymnastics,  athletics  or  corrective  work, 
but  not  necessarily  any  one  or  all  of  these. 

We  found  that  in  fifty-seven  per  cent,  of  the  schools 
the  instructor  had  attended  schools  of  physical  train- 
ing; in  thirteen  per  cent.,  schools  of  elocution;  in 
twelve  per  cent.,  seminaries,  colleges  or  similar  insti- 
tutions; and  in  twenty  per  cent,  no  training  was 
claimed  other  than  general  education.  In  two  the 
faculty  and  students  had  joint  charge  of  the  work. 

It  was  found  that  where  there  were  both  basketball 
and  baseball,  all  the  instructors  had  attended  a  school 
of  physical  training.  Where  basketball  and  hockey 
were  played,  sixty-one  per  cent,  had  attended  such 
schools.  Where  basketball  alone  was  played,  forty- 
two  per  cent,  had  attended  physical  training  schools ; 
ten  per  cent.,  schools  of  elocution ;  ten  per  cent,  had 
received  only  academic  training;  and  thirty-eight  per 
cent,  had  no  training  other  than  general  education. 
All  of  these  instructors  took  charge  of  the  games,  al- 


ATHLETICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS     89 

though  less  than  half  had  received  training  qualifying 
them  to  do  so. 

In  twenty-one  per  cent,  of  the  schools,  the  instructor 
taught  no  work  other  than  physical  training.  In 
thirty-two  per  cent,  she  had  elocution,  dramatics  and 
physical  culture ;  in  fourteen  per  cent.,  physical  train- 
ing and  hygiene  or  physiology  and  mathematics.  In 
the  others,  history,  English,  grade  work  or  languages 
were  combined  with  physical  training.  In  twenty- 
four  per  cent,  we  were  unable  to  get  definite  answers 
as  to  whether  the  instructor  had  other  duties.  One 
reply  was,  "  The  instructor  is  available  for  any  serv- 
ice she  may  be  called  upon  to  render." 

As  a  number  did  not  answer  the  question,  we  be- 
lieve that  these  percentages  are  above  rather  than  be- 
low the  number  of  those  who  have  received  training. 
It  does  not  always  follow  that  those  who  claim  train- 
ing are  better  instructors.  In  one  school  where  the 
instructor  had  charge  of  baseball,  basketball  and 
hockey,  she  appeared  in  the  catalogue  as  a  graduate 
of  a  physical  training  school  and  also  as  having  at- 
tended a  summer  school.  In  the  first  she  had  received 
no  instruction  in  athletics  and  in  the  second  she  failed 
in  her  examinations  and  could  not  play  one  of  the 
games  that  she  "  coached." 

The  chaperon  "  coach  "  is  still  a  feature.  She  sits 
on  the  lawn  by  the  courts,  reading  a  book  and  from 
time  to  time  observing  that  no  bad  language  or  dis- 
putes occur,  but  what  does  she  know  of  the  meaning  of 
the  game  or  of  team  play  or  of  exhilaration  or  strain? 
Are  the  girls  being  educated  in  fair  play  or  simply] 


90  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

finding  an  outlet  for  a  petty,  mean  spirit?  Are  they 
playing  according  to  rules  or  making  their  own  rules? 
Are  they  gaining  in  discipline  or  simply  wasting 
energy?  One  correspondent  sent  in  this  definition  of 
the  supervisor  of  games :  "  A  person  to  see  that  the 
girls  have  proper  clothing  and  change  it  properly." 
In  physical  and  moral  development  what  is  the  relative 
importance  of  taking  a  cold  or  of  becoming  a  sneak 
and  a  cheat  ? 

Such  a  game  as  basketball,  played  in  sixty-five  per 
cent,  of  the  schools,  presents  such  important  physical 
and  ethical  problems  that  it  should  not  be  played  by 
girls  without  competent  supervision.  It  is  not  en- 
tirely the  fault  of  training  schools  and  of  teachers 
that  so  many  positions  are  filled  by  untrained  per- 
sons. Some  private  schools  furnish  such  poor  facili- 
ties and  interfere  so  much  with  the  work  of  the  in- 
structor that  a  trained  person  cannot  afford  to  accept 
the  position.  One  teacher  refused  to  admit  girls  to 
basketball  practice  because  they  were  physically  unfit. 
They  appealed  to  the  principal  and  she  decided  that 
they  could  play.  In  another  instance  the  principal 
objected  to  a  strict  observance  of  rules  and  upon  a 
protest  from  the  instructor  said,  "  Well,  they  can  get 
some  exercise,  no  matter  how  they  play."  Physical 
training  is  considered  so  unimportant  in  some  schools 
that  the  most  trivial  things  are  permitted  to  inter- 
fere with  the  classes — a  thing  not  tolerated  in  any 
other  department. 

It  would  be  a  good  thing  if  private  schools  would 
abolish  the  use  of  the  term  "  physical  culture,"  which 


ATHLETICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS     91 

has  come  to  mean  almost  anything.  There  are  physi- 
cal culture  systems,  restaurants,  furniture  and  maga- 
zines. Less  than  one-fifth  of  the  schools  designated 
their  work  as  physical  training,  not  one  as  physical 
education,  and  the  rest  called  it  "  physical  culture," 
whether  it  included  Delsarte,  elocution,  reading, 
dramatics,  breathing  exercises,  medical  gymnastics, 
athletics  or  simply  walks. 

Methods  of  Instruction — The  prevailing  methods 
of  work  in  many  schools  are  open  to  much  criticism. 
In  a  number,  an  extra  charge  is  made  for  athletics  or 
for  the  use  of  paraphernalia.  In  some  the  girls  are 
able  to  pay ;  in  others  those  who  most  need  the  games 
do  not  choose  them,  as  they  are  considered  a  luxury. 
Class  distinctions,  based  on  purchasing  power,  are 
thus  raised.  It  is  desirable  that  schools  give  the  mat- 
ter careful  thought  and  endeavor  to  bring  athletics 
within  the  regular  tuition.  The  practice  of  requiring 
pupils  to  furnish  their  own  basketballs,  tennis  nets, 
etc.,  is  open  to  the  further  objection  that  a  few  con- 
trol their  use  and  it  is  more  difficult  to  supervise  the 
work  properly  when  the  school  does  not  own  the 
outfits. 

A  second  defect  lies  in  the  relation  of  gymnastics 
and  athletics.  The  latter  are  almost  invariably  elect- 
ive and  girls  are  permitted  to  go  into  strenuous  games 
without  any  preliminary  training.  In  some  cases  ath- 
letics are  substituted  for  long  periods  for  all  regular 
gymnastics. 

The  importance  of  measurements  and  of  examina- 
tions of  heart  and  lungs,  in  schools  where  there  are 


92  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

growing  girls,  cannot  be  overestimated.  Great  care  is 
now  taken  that  a  girl's  eyes  shall  be  tested  before  she 
undertakes  study.  Why  not  be  equally  sure  that  her 
body  is  sound  before  she  makes  great  demands  on  it.'' 
Of  the  schools  reporting,  fifty-three  per  cent,  take 
"  some  kind  of  measurements " ;  eight  per  cent. 
"  make  examinations  " ;  five  per  cent,  give  "  special 
examinations  for  medical  and  corrective  work  " ;  four- 
teen per  cent,  mention  no  examinations  and  meas- 
urements ;  and  twenty  per  cent,  do  not  make  any  what- 
ever. No  instructor  can  intelligently  work  with  each 
girl  without  an  intimate  knowledge  of  her  condition. 
A  few  schools  realize  this  and  have  placed  special  em- 
phasis upon  it,  including  also  blood  tests  and  detailed 
family  history.  There  are  several  percental  charts 
which  make  it  easy  to  take  these  measurements,  and 
their  intelligent  use  would  eliminate  many  of  the  evils 
of  over-work.  . 

The  average  amount  of  time  given  to  physical  ex- 
ercise (if  we  include  walks,  upon  which  much  stress  is 
placed  by  many  schools)  is  fair.  The  prevailing 
plan  appears  to  be  to  have  out-of-door  sports  and 
work  during  late  fall  and  early  spring  and  gym- 
nastics during  the  winter.  Very  few  of  the  schools 
give  systematic  daily  work.  It  is  usually  two  or  three 
times  a  week.  The  time  required  to  be  spent  out  of 
doors  averages  between  one  and  two  hours  daily. 
Where  gymnastics  and  athletics  are  combined,  about 
one-third  of  the  time  is  given  to  the  latter. 

Some  of  the  schools  appear  to  have  no  system  what- 
ever so  far  as  athletics  alone  are  concerned.     The 


ATHLETICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS     93 

girls  play  when  they  wish  or  when  they  can  find  time. 
A  few  city  schools  that  have  no  facilities  encourage 
their  pupils  to  use  private  gymnasia.  This  is  ordi- 
narily at  the  individual's  expense,  there  is  no  school 
supervision  and  the  girl  chooses  both  the  amount  and 
kind  of  work.  The  school  makes  careful  inquiries  into 
the  reputation  of  the  gymnasia  but  does  not  extend 
them  to  an  intelligent  scrutiny  of  the  work  offered. 

Athletic  Organizations. — Not  the  least  important 
is  the  increased  emphasis  that  is  being  placed  upon 
the  social  side  of  athletics.  Formerly  no  commence- 
ment or  class  day  recognized  them  in  any  way. 
The  formation  of  athletic  associations,  which  encour- 
age student  self-government,  and  the  introduction  of 
field  days  and  athletic  events  on  social  programs,  are 
now  quite  common.  It  is  gratifying  to  find  that  so 
many  schools  have  these  associations.  They  are  help- 
ful in  stimulating  interest,  in  developing  school  pride, 
in  taking  the  §irls  out  of  doors  and  in  bringing 
people  together  in  pleasant  democratic  relations. 
Where  some  of  these  results  are  not  accomplished,  it 
is  because  the  organization  has  fallen  into  the  hands 
of  a  small  clique  or  something  else  is  wrong.  Ath- 
letic associations  accomplish  many  other  things.  In 
some  schools  they  have  charge  of  the  sports  or  fur- 
nish the  trophies  for  contests;  in  others,  where  inter- 
scholastic  contests  are  played,  they  arrange  for  the 
contests  and  entertain  the  visiting  teams.  They  may 
also  arrange  for  field  days,  class  games,  banquets, 
etc.  One  school  association  in  Colorado  is  equipping 
a  small  gymnasium  with  apparatus  for  one  of  the  city 


94  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

settlements.  The  heads  of  scliools  speak  well  of  these 
associations,  as  is  indicated  by  these  statements  from 
principals : 

"  The  athletic  club  stands  for  the  best  physically, 
mentally  and  morally,  and  by  admitting  to  it  girls  who 
have  proved  themselves  superior  it  is  a  strong  influence 
for  good." 

"  The  athletic  association  maintains  the  rational  and 
soimd  love  for  out-of-door  sports." 

"  They  create  the  love  for  being  out  of  doors,  and 
their  moral  value  is  in  teaching  self-control  under  defeat 
and  in  being  courteous  to  visiting  winning  teams." 

"  Healthy  competition  within  the  school  is  encouraged 
and  is  a  matter  of  school  pride  and  is  a  strong  stimulus 
to  increased  zeal  in  preparatory  work.  Athletic  honors 
won  by  our  girls  in  college  are  a  cause  of  congratulation, 
implying  as  they  do  that  examinations  have  been  passed, 
and  a  good  all-around  development  maintained.  Some 
girls  who  have  won  such  honors  have  also  become  presi- 
dent of  their  class." 

Most  of  these  associations  have  fees  varying  from 
fifteen  cents  per  term  to  five  dollars  per  year.  Care 
needs  to  be  exercised  that  the  fees  are  not  prohibitive. 
It  is  more  important  that  many  girls  should  be  mem- 
bers than  that  a  large  number  of  entertainments  be 
furnished  with  the  funds. 

Suggestions  for  Improvement. — From  a  careful 
study  of  the  situation  the  following  needs  appear  to 
merit  serious  consideration: 

1.  Increase  in  the  variety  of  games,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  minor  games  of  ball,  as  long-ball,  captain- 
ball,  etc.,  and  the  wider  use  of  gymnastic  games  for 
small  girls. 


ATHLETICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS     95 

2.  Use  of  organized  games  to  a  greater  extent  in- 
doors during  the  winter. 

3.  A  closer  connection  between  gymnastics  and  ath- 
letics, and  use  of  the  former  as  preparatory  work  for 
organized  games. 

4.  Introduction  of  measurements,  tests  and  exami- 
nations which  will  make  physical  training  more  intelli- 
gent and  effective. 

5.  Co-operation  of  parents  and  physicians  in  es- 
tablishing good  systems  of  physical  training.  It  is 
a  question  whether  under  any  circumstances  a  girl 
excused  from  all  physical  training  should  be  per- 
mitted to  take  full  mental  work.  Some  pupils  ob- 
tain such  excuses  in  order  that  they  may  give  more 
time  to  their  studies.  The  adoption  of  a  rule  that 
any  girl  excused  from  physical  training  should  take 
only  a  minimum  amount  of  mental  work  or  less  than  a 
full  year's  work  would  tend  to  lessen  unnecessary 
excuses. 

6.  Physical  training  as  a  part  of  the  recognized 
educational  work  and  compulsory  for  at  least  part  of 
the  school  period  and  in  charge  of  a  competent  in- 
structor. 

7.  Abolition  of  athletic  privileges  and  opportuni- 
ties based  on  purchasing  power. 

8.  Increase  in  the  number  of  summer  camps  main- 
tained by  the  schools,  where  girls  can  be  out  of  doors. 
In  these  camps,  organized  sports  and  recreation 
should  have  a  prominent  place. 


CHAPTER  V 

ATHLETICS  IN  UNIVERSITIES  AND 
COLLEGES 

In  one  respect  colleges  occupy  a  most  important 
position.  Secondary  schools  invariably  look  to  them 
as  guides  and  take  pride  in  having  their  students 
make  a  good  showing  in  the  college  they  enter.  Their 
athletic  standard  is  therefore  largely  influenced  by 
the  conditions  prevailing  in  colleges.  Secondary 
schools  do  not  lay  much  emphasis  on  social  educa- 
tion, and  it  is  therefore  in  the  college  that  the  student 
finds  her  last  chance  for  character-building  through 
athletics  before  she  becomes  an  active  and  important 
factor  in  the  world  at  large. 

A  few  colleges  have  measured  up  to  their  oppor- 
tunity by  creating  departments  of  physical  educa- 
tion with  faculties  similar  to  those  of  other  depart- 
ments and  whose  instructors  are  members  of  the 
college  or  university  general  faculty,  with  a  voice  in 
the  administration  of  the  entire  institution.  But  in 
far  too  many  of  them,  the  "  coach  "  idea  is  still  preva- 
lent and  athletics  are  encouraged  because  they  fur- 
nish good  exercise  and  maintain  health.  Athletics 
are  not  only  entirely  elective,  but  in  many  instances 
no  eff^orts  are  made  to  make  them  attractive.  Great 
scholars  and  good  libraries  attract  to  the  courses  in 

96    • 


ATHLETICS  IN  UNIVERSITIES  97 

literature  and  philosophy,  but  any  one  will  do  to 
teach  athletics  and  any  old  shed  or  corner  is  con- 
sidered good  enough  for  practice. 

When  cities  were  smaller  and  there  were  vacant 
lots  and  yards  and  wide  halls  and  big  rooms  in  which 
to  play,  children  received  more  of  the  much  needed 
group  training  in  a  natural  spontaneous  way.  But 
now  many  girls  who  go  to  college  have  been  brought 
up  without  a  playground.  The  absence  of  the  play 
spirit  and  opportunity  for  play  are  bound  to  make 
a  difference  in  the  character  and  to  increase  strenuous 
living.  Groups  of  college  girls  turned  loose  in  the 
gymnasium  to  play  for  the  first  time  stand  about  awk- 
wardly, asking  each  other  if  they  know  a  game  or  what 
to  play  and  usually  the  experiment  is  a  flat  failure 
unless  a  leader  is  provided.  When  girls  lose  the  play 
spirit  so  young,  one  cannot  expect  much  from  them  as 
mothers  except  a  loss  of  companionship  with  children 
and  an  increasing  interest  in  nursemaids  and  attrac- 
tion toward  a  business  life. 

Small  Colleges. — Our  problem  has  been  to  find  out 
what  colleges  and  universities  are  really  doing  by 
means  of  athletics  to  set  a  standard  and  to  influence 
public  life  by  turning  out  good  citizens.  We  find  that 
midway  between  the  secondary  schools  and  universities 
are  a  large  number  of  institutions  which  give  degrees 
and  call  themselves  colleges.  In  athletics  they  are 
best  classed  with  private  schools.  Very  few  provide 
systematic  instruction ;  some  have  no  work  whatever ; 
while  in  others  it  is  voluntary  play.  It  is  not  our 
purpose  to  discuss  conditions  in  these  colleges,  other 


98  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

than  to  note  that  the  conditions  here  are  similar  to 
those  previously  described  for  private  schools. 

Graduate  Schools. — Other  institutions  which  neg- 
lect athletics  are  graduate  schools.  Graduates  are 
rarely  required  to  take  physical  training,  have  usu- 
ally acquired  the  study  habit  and  are  not  interested  in 
athletics,  a  condition  as  bad  for  them  as  for  the  com- 
munity. The  college  as  a  rule  does  not  make  physical 
training  sufficiently  interesting  to  attract  graduates, 
nor  does  it  adapt  it  to  their  needs. 

There  remains,  then,  a  large  group  of  private,  state 
and  city  institutions  which  represent  the  collegiate 
world,  to  which  the  state  looks  for  well-trained  citi- 
zens and  secondary  schools  for  guidance.  In  our 
study  we  found  that  the  usual  games  were  basketball, 
which  was  played  in  every  college  studied ;  hockey  in 
fifty  per  cent. ;  baseball  occasionally ;  and  minor  games 
of  ball  in  a  few.  In  contrast  with  other  institutions 
most  of  the  colleges  admitted  that  it  was  necessary 
to  stimulate  interest.  This  was  done  in  various  ways, 
the  athletic  association  being  of  most  help,  prizes 
second  in  importance,  competitive  games  third  and 
inter-coUcgiate   contests   last. 

Instructors. — The  instructor  has  a  much  greater 
authority  in  the  training  and  selection  of  teams  than 
in  any  other  institution.  In  some  there  is  no  appeal 
from  her  decisions.  There  is  one  group,  chiefly  East- 
ern colleges,  in  which  much  of  the  authority  is  vested 
in  the  athletic  association,  as  is  shown  later.  In  less 
than  five  per  cent,  the  instructors  were  men.  In 
twenty  per  cent,  they  had  had  no  special  training  and 


ATHLETICS  IN  UNIVERSITIES  99 

of  the  remaining  eighty  per  cent,  about  five  per  cent, 
had  had  only  summer  school  work.  While  this  is  a 
good  standard,  one  would  hardly  expect  to  find  in  this 
group  men  "  coaches  "  who  trained  girls  for  outside 
contests;  or  instructors  who  had  had  no  special 
preparation.  The  tendency  is  to  require  academic 
degrees,  but  less  than  ten  per  cent,  of  the  instructors 
stated  that  collegiate  training  had  been  part  of  their 
preparation. 

The  most  discouraging  features  found  were  the  ab- 
sence of  an  educational  use  of  games  and  isolation  of 
the  department  of  physical  education  from  other  col- 
lege activities.  Tliis  is  partly  the  fault  of  instruct- 
ors who  still  continue  to  emphasize  only  the  health  and 
recreative  features  and  who  seem  to  fear  the  power  of 
athletics.  The  competitive  element  alarms  them,  and 
in  some  instances  restriction  more  than  regulation  is 
the  method  of  control. 

Inter-Collegiate  Contests. — The  colleges  are  di- 
vided on  the  question.  Most  of  the  women's  colleges 
in  the  East  and  many  of  the  co-educational  institu- 
tions do  not  play  outside  games  but  have  inter-class 
contests.  Occasionally  they  play  a  game  with  their 
preparatory  school  or  with  a  normal  school.  In  the 
Middle  West  and  West,  inter-collegiate  contests  are 
more  common,  but  the  percentage  playing  them  there 
is  less  than  one-half.  With  the  exception  of  an  occa- 
sional ball  game,  the  officials  are  generally  women  and 
the  audience  is  admitted  by  invitation.  Very  little 
of  the  evil  of  pay  games  exists  and  the  spirit  of  pro- 
fessionalism seems  well  under  control.    This  is  partly 


100  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

due  to  the  financial  support  given  by  the  college, 
which  is  absent  in  high  schools  and  only  partial  in 
private  schools.  The  college  demonstrates  that  ath- 
letics can  be  successfully  conducted  and  large  num- 
bers interested  by  the  substitution  of  inter-class 
games,  class  prizes  and  athletic  associations  for  inter- 
scholastic  competition  and  public  pay  games. 

Systems  of  Work. — These  vary  greatly.  In 
about  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  colleges,  uniform  stand- 
ards, with  varying  degrees  of  thoroughness,  exist. 
Measurements  are  made  and  training  is  based  upon 
them.  Few  allow  girls  to  play  basketball  without 
heart  and  lung  examinations.  Gymnastics  are  or- 
dinarily required.  In  one  institution  a  year  of  gym- 
nastics is  required  before  such  games  as  hockey  and 
basketball  can  be  played  at  all.  In  another,  they  can 
play  all  other  games  but  basketball  without  having 
had  gymnastics.  The  proportionate  amount  of  ath- 
letics and  gymnastics  is  unequal,  being  about  thirty 
per  cent,  for  the  former  and  seventy  per  cent,  for  the 
latter  throughout  the  year.  It  is  not  the  rule  to  have 
athletics  during  the  winter.  One  college  requires  that 
gymnastics  be  taken  for  two  years  before  athletics 
are  permitted,  then  all  gymnastics  may  be  omitted. 
In  colleges  where  men  and  women  used  the  same  gym- 
nasium, the  arrangement  was  usually  unsatisfactory. 
In  one  such  institution  the  "  only  hour  available  for 
women  is  the  lunch  hour  between  one  and  two  o'clock." 
Then  those  in  charge  of  the  work  wonder  why  women 
are  not  interested. 

The  variety  of  games  which  students  play  does  not 


ATHLETICS  IN  UNIVERSITIES  101 

seem  to  be  carefully  regulated.  In  some  instances 
they  may  elect  as  many  as  are  offered ;  in  others  two ; 
in  still  others  one  "  heavy  game  " ;  and  in  a  few  they 
are  limited  to  one  game.  There  is  much  wise  super- 
vision of  practice  periods,  the  average  for  basketball 
being  forty  minutes  twice  each  week.  The  halves 
average  twelve  minutes,  with  ten  minutes'  rest.  Most 
colleges  permit  extra  voluntary  practice  and  this 
privilege  does  not  appear  to  be  abused.  The  average 
hockey  practice  is  one  hour  and  baseball  one  and 
one-quarter  hours.  Only  one  of  the  colleges  re- 
ported games  daily,  the  rule  being  twice  or  three  times 
weekly  and  often  but  once.  But  one  college  appeared 
to  be  indifferent  about  times  of  playing.  The  others 
required  that  from  two  days  to  one  week  each  month 
be  given  to  rest  from  physical  training.  A  half-dozen 
insisted  upon  baths  after  practice  and  the  majority 
advised  or  urged  it,  while  many  were  indifferent  or 
left  the  matter  to  the  girls. 

Colleges,  like  private  schools,  have  difficulty  with 
girls  who  wish  to  be  excused  from  all  physical  train- 
ing, and  physicians'  excuses  play  an  important  part. 
One  physician  asked  to  have  a  student  excused  on  the 
ground  that  she  had  trouble  with  her  lungs !  After  a 
careful  examination  this  request  was  refused  and  work 
prescribed.  Later  she  was  put  into  basketball  and  at 
the  end  of  the  year,  upon  her  physician's  own  state- 
ment, showed  an  improvement  of  fifty  per  cent. ! 
The  college,  in  order  to  work  for  the  best  interest  of 
the  girl,  needs  to  convince  the  family  and  physician 
of  the  value  of  physical  education. 


102  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

It  is  impossible  to  ^ve  in  detail  the  varying  sys- 
tems, but  judging  from  the  most  successful  ones  in 
use,  from  the  point  of  view  of  both  education  and 
health,  it  would  seem  that  the  following  experiments 
have  worked  satisfactorily: 

One  college  considers  athletics  and  gymnastics  as 
of  equal  importance  and  divides  the  periods  equally 
on  alternate  days.  When  the  teams  are  practising 
for  finals,  the  gymnastic  period  is  reduced  to  one  day. 
Another  college  requires  four  periods  of  work  each 
week  for  the  first  three  years,  and  in  two  of  these 
periods  athletics  may  be  elected.  A  third  provides 
graded  athletics,  which  increases  the  variety  and 
makes  it  possible  for  the  less  robust  girls  and  fresh- 
men to  begin  on  minor  games  of  ball.  A  fourth  in- 
stitution has  included  short  lectures  upon  the  pur- 
pose and  value  of  athletics,  and  special  lectures  upon 
the  games  played. 

Some  form  of  athletics,  elective  throughout  the 
year,  is  desirable.  Ring  hockey  and  indoor  baseball 
may  be  substituted  during  the  winter  for  the  cor- 
responding outdoor  games.  This  not  only  gives  all 
girls  a  chance  but  the  group  training  may  be  begun 
at  once  and  carried  throughout  the  year.  Under  no 
conditions,  where  there  is  any  gymnasium,  should  all 
athletics  be  omitted  during  the  winter  semester,  even 
if  the  place  is  only  big  enough  for  volley-ball,  captain- 
ball,  etc.  One  highly  organized  game  and  one  minor 
game  is  a  wise  limitation.  An  average  of  three  days 
excuse  per  month  from  all  physical  training  is  the 
practice. 


ATHLETICS  IN  UNIVERSITIES         103 

Athletic  Associations. — It  is  impossible  to  discuss 
athletics  in  colleges  without  considering  athletic  asso- 
ciations and  clubs,  which  exist  in  more  than  eighty  per 
cent,  of  the  large  colleges  and  exert  a  wide  influence. 
This  tendency  is  seen  also  in  a  number  of  the  small 
colleges.  They  may  have  but  one  game,  oftentimes 
no  gymnasium  and  but  superficial  instruction,  and 
still  maintain  flourishing  associations.  Some  so-called 
athletic  associations  have  really  very  little  to  do  with 
athletics.  Sometimes  they  are  merely  informal  clubs 
with  no  object  except  to  stimulate  interest  or  the  de- 
bating society  adds  athletics  to  its  other  activities. 
In  a  few  instances  our  correspondents  described  these 
organizations  as  "  weak  " ;  "  inchoate  " ;  "  demoralize 
the  school  in  the  name  of  class  spirit  " ;  "  pernicious  in 
stimulating  competitions  " ;  "  ineff^ective  " ;  or,  "  bad 
for  the  school,"  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  they 
were  considered  of  great  assistance. 

Membership  is  generally  made  up  of  undergradu- 
ates, but  the  administration  varies.  Ordinarily  the 
control  is  vested  in  one  of  the  following  groups : 

(1)  Officers  of  the  association  and  captains  of 
teams  and  manager.  This  represents  entire  student 
control  and  is  rare.  (2)  Officers  of  the  association, 
captains  of  teams  and  physical  education  director. 
(3)  To  this  second  type  are  frequently  added  mem- 
bers of  the  faculty,  elected  by  the  association.  This 
is  the  most  common  type  and  is  effective.  (4)  Officers 
of  the  association,  one  representative  from  each 
game,  including  indoor  gymnastic  group  and  physi- 
cal education  director.     In  this  last  group,  members 


104  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

of  the  faculty  are  only  elected  by  the  association  to 
the  advisory  committee.  One  college  varies  this  by 
having  the  three  lower  classes  represented,  instead  of 
the  game  groups ;  another  by  adding  to  the  officers 
and  representatives  from  each  sport  a  member  at  large 
for  each  class.  One  university  has,  in  addition  to 
the  executive  committee  of  the  association,  a  faculty 
athletic  committee  and  a  board  of  control  appointed 
by  the  president  of  the  college,  consisting  of  two 
faculty  members,  a  graduate  student  and  the  presi- 
dent and  treasurer  of  the  athletic  association.  They 
have  charge  of  funds  and  grounds.  Under  some  as- 
sociations each  game  group  is  organized  into  a  club 
and  the  various  officers  who  have  control  of  that  group 
represent  it  on  the  executive  committee  of  the  general 
association.  In  others,  there  is  no  formal  club,  each 
team  being  the  center  of  the  group  and  directing  its 
activities  through  the  captain.  In  one  college  the  sys- 
tem is  quite  elaborate.  There  are  seven  organized 
sports,  each  constituting  a  department,  which  is  under 
the  direction  of  the  captain  and  head.  Each  sport 
has  its  own  set  of  regulations  and  the  duties  of  its 
officers  are  carefully  defined.  The  captains  and  heads 
give  the  instruction  in  each  department.  All  of  these 
various  types  of  organizations  are  found  in  the  vari- 
ous colleges,  but  (3)  and  (4)  possess  the  greatest  in- 
terest for  new  organizations  looking  for  a  model. 
The  combination  of  officers  of  the  association,  physi- 
cal director,  and  one  representative  from  each  game 
group  and  from  each  class  with  faculty  on  the  ad- 
visory board  is  exceedingly  valuable. 


ATHLETICS  IN  UNIVERSITIES  105 

The  duties  of  these  executive  committees  or  boards 
vary,  as  the  following  show: 

"  Its  duties  are  to  formulate  rules  for  governing 
athletics  and  athletic  honors  and  to  enforce  these  rules. 
It  consults  with  the  advisory  committee  regarding  the 
welfare  of  the  association  but  there  is  no  appeal  from 
its  decisions." 

"  To  make  appropriations,  to  appoint  all  committees 
for  the  control  of  athletic  fetes  and  contests,  and  to  have 
the  supervision  and  final  decision  in  all  affairs  pertain- 
ing to  the  interests  of  the  association  not  otherwise  pro- 
vided for  by  the  constitution.  Appeal  from  any  de- 
cision of  the  executive  board  may  be  taken  to  the  as- 
sociation by  twenty-five  members." 

"  Organized  sports  shall  come  under  the  supervision 
of  the  executive  board.  Each  organization  shall  con- 
stitute a  separate  department,  having  the  power  to  elect 
its  own  officers  and  make  its  own  rules  and  regulations, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  executive  board.  Any 
sport  may  be  authorized  by  the  executive  board." 

"  The  executive  committee  shall  be  in  charge  of  the 
four  regular  meetings  of  the  association  and  shall  meet 
the  expenses  of  such.  These  regular  meetings  are  a 
gymnasium  meet,  an  open  meet,  reception  to  freshmen, 
and  annual  business  meeting." 

Associations  are  usually  supported  by  membership 
dues  and  have  for  their  object  "  improving  conditions 
of  health  "  and  "  attracting  girls  to  the  department 
of  physical  education."  A  few  make  improvements  in 
the  courts  and  purchase  paraphernalia.  Some  are 
close  corporations  and  no  one  can  enter  athletics  or 
use  the  courts  or  equipment  except  through  their 
doors. 


106  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

In  one  college,  the  association  selects  student  lead- 
ers who  also  instruct  the  players.  Where  under- 
graduates have  such  a  responsibility  it  is  impossible 
to  educate  girls  through  play.  Under  this  system, 
a  college  freshman  just  out  of  preparatory  school 
had  charge  of  freshman  basketball.  She  was  a  good 
player  but  a  hard  one,  had  no  knowledge  of  games 
other  than  their  physical  value  and  while  fair  and 
courageous,  was  far  too  young,  inexperienced  and  un- 
trained to  teach  a  game  like  basketball.  It  would 
seem  that  the  selection  and  training  of  teams,  deter- 
mination of  number  of  games  and  other  matters  af- 
fecting the  health  and  education  of  players,  should 
properly  be  vested  in  the  department  of  physical 
education,  while  field  arrangements  and  all  social 
functions  could  properly  be  in  the  hands  of  an 
association. 

This  belief  is  borne  out  by  the  experience  that  the 
greatest  service  which  associations  now  render  is  ex- 
ecutive social  work.  The  influence  exerted  by  them 
in  selecting  players,  arranging  schedules,  etc.,  is  small 
compared  to  the  need  of  arousing  class  and  college 
loyalty  and  spirit ;  of  stimulating  interest ;  of  break- 
ing down  social  lines ;  and  of  making  games  fair, 
attractive  and  wholesome.  This  is  the  opportunity 
and  responsibility  which  no  instructor  or  depart- 
ment can  meet  alone.  The  following  are  illustra- 
tive of  the  annual  activities  of  some  of  the  active 
associations,  showing  how  they  accomplish  these 
results : 

A.   ( 1 )  Freshman  social  and  reception,  given  early 


ATHLETICS  IN  UNIVERSITIES         107 

in  the  fall,  to  which  all  women  in  the  university  are 
invited  to  meet  the  freshmen.  The  object  is  to  inter- 
est the  freshmen  in  the  department  of  physical  educa- 
tion and  in  the  association.  (2)  A  carnival,  consist- 
ing of  folk  dances,  short  local  play,  booths  of  different 
nations  and  other  entertainments.  This  is  given  to 
raise  money  for  the  pins  and  numerals  which  the  asso- 
ciation presents  each  year  to  those  who  make  the 
teams.  (3)  Mid-year  entertainment  by  the  members 
of  the  association  to  the  teams.  (4!)  May- f est,  con- 
sisting of  Maypole  dances  and  final  games  in  basket- 
ball and  hockey.  About  one  hundred  of  the  associa- 
tion members  and  others  took  part  in  this.  (5)  Ban- 
quet at  close  of  the  season  when  the  banners,  cup, 
pins,  numerals  and  other  prizes  and  trophies  are  pre- 
sented. This  is  a  formal  affair  with  speeches,  toasts, 
etc.  (6)  There  are  contests  including  three  inter- 
class  championship  games  each  of  basketball,  hockey 
and  indoor  baseball  and  one  gymnastic  contest.  At 
all  of  these  the  association  has  the  responsibility  of 
bringing  out  an  audience,  getting  up  enthusiasm, 
decorating  the  field  or  gymnasium,  calling  for  invited 
guests  and  arranging  advantageous  seating  for  them, 
leading  class  and  team  songs  and  cheers,  and  provid- 
ing ushers,  programs,  etc. 

B.  There  are  four  general  social  days  under  the 
supervision  and  arrangement  of  the  association:  (1) 
Tree  day,  in  which  the  dancing  classes  largely  par- 
ticipate. (2)  Float  day,  in  which  the  rowing  club 
members  take  a  prominent  part.  (3)  Field  day,  in 
which  the  basketball,  hockey,  tennis  and  other  sports 


108  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

predominate.     (4)  Indoor  meet  by  the  gymnastic  de- 
partment. 

C.  The  association  gives  a  reception  to  freshmen 
and  has  charge  of  all  the  social  and  executive  details 
of  the  under-class  championship  between  sophomores 
and  freshmen,  which  includes  one  basketball  and  two 
hockey  games ;  and  of  the  college  championship  be- 
tween Juniors  and  Seniors,  and  between  sophomores 
and  freshmen,  which  includes  basketball,  hockey  and 
field  and  track  events.  The  association  provides  and 
presents  the  pennants,  numerals  and  letters  to  the 
winners. 

D.  The  association  has  charge  of  the  gymnasium 
meet,  the  open  meet  and  the  reception  given  to  fresh- 
men in  the  fall. 

Athletic  associations  could  very  well  give  more 
time  and  thought  to  developing  good  songs  for  field 
days,  championship  games  and  meets.  They  might 
also  induce  persons  interested  in  the  play  movement 
and  in  games  and  their  social  expression  to  give  lec- 
tures or  addresses  under  their  auspices. 

There  is  not  much  variety  in  athletic  games  or 
events  now  used  for  field  days.  An  association  can 
do  much  to  stimulate  interest  in  minor  games  and 
class  contests,  and  in  working  out  athletic  events 
which  will  be  good  substitutes  for  such  individual 
contests  as  shot  put,  etc.,  which  are  now  used. 

Another  function  which  might  be  undertaken  by 
such  athletic  associations  is  a  field  day  for  secondary 
schools,  similar  to  those  now  given  by  universities  to 
high  school  boys.     In  place  of  having  only  competi- 


ATHLETICS  IN  UNIVERSITIES         109 

tions  between  the  various  schools  for  prizes,  the  class 
teams  of  the  hostess  college  could  give  exhibition 
games  and  the  schools  be  invited  to  do  likewise.  A 
prize  might  be  offered  to  the  school  playing  the  best 
exhibition  game  with  its  own  teams.  Perhaps  one 
inter-scholastic  competitive  game,  for  educational 
rather  than  for  competitive  purposes,  might  be  added. 
If  the  ideal  maintained  by  colleges  is  to  mean  any- 
thing, their  work  and  spirit  must  be  presented  in  some 
concrete  way  to  the  various  schools  and  all  of  these 
brought  together  socially  under  the  guidance  of  the 
college,  but  always  with  the  social,  educational  and 
esthetic  values  emphasized. 


CHAPTER  VI 

ATHLETICS    IN    POLITICAL    AND    SOCIAL 
ORGANIZATIONS 

Is  it  enough  that  athletics  be  given  a  place  in  the 
educational  system  ?  Do  not  persons  who  have  learned 
to  play  need  an  outlet  for  the  play  spirit  after  they 
leave  school?  Furthermore,  many  never  reach  the 
high  school  or  college,  and  city  grade  schools  at 
best  offer  but  meager  facilities  for  play.  Aside  from 
its  educational  value,  play  bears  an  important  rela- 
tion to  many  city  problems.  For  instance,  it  is  a 
great  safeguard  against  immorality,  since  it  provides 
a  normal,  wholesome  outlet  for  physical  energy. 
Many  short-sighted  city  administrations  leave  the 
matters  of  recreation  to  dance  halls,  where  the  fee  for 
the  use  of  the  hall  consists  of  the  drinks  that  are 
bought.  Speaking  of  their  influence.  Miss  Jane  Ad- 
dams  says :  ^ 

"  The  public  dance  halls  filled  with  frivolous  and 
vapid  young  people  in  a  feverish  search  for  pleasure 
are  but  a  sorry  substitute  for  the  immemorial  dances  on 
the  village  green  in  which  all  of  the  older  people  of  the 
village  participated.  .  .  .  The  modern  city  is  content, 
however,  to  turn  over  all  the  public  provision  for  danc- 
ing to  the  proprietors  of  '  halls/  who  deliberately  use  it 
as  a  snare  to  vice  and  at  the  best  make  money  from  this 

»  Charities,  Vol.  XVIII.,  p.  494. 
110 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        111 

insatiable  desire  on  the  part  o£  young  people.  We  have 
no  sense  of  responsibility  in  regard  to  their  pleasures 
and  continually  forget  that  amusement  is  stronger  than 
vice  and  that  it  alone  can  stifle  the  lust  for  it.  We  see 
all  about  us  much  vice  which  is  merely  a  love  for  pleas- 
ure '  gone  wrong,'  the  illicit  expression  of  what  might 
have  been  not  only  normal  and  recreative  pleasure  but 
an  instrument  in  the  advance  of  a  higher  social 
morality." 

There  are  no  public  gymnasia  for  women  in  most  of 
the  cities  and  very  little  opportunity  is  provided  for 
organized  play  for  adults.^  A  number  of  political 
and  social  institutions  are  undertaking  to  meet  this 
need,  and  it  may  be  of  interest  to  show  something  of 
the  scope  and  methods  of  their  activities  and  to  sug- 
gest some  ways  in  which  both  the  recreational  and 
educational  advantages  may  be  increased.  While  it  is 
not  possible  to  include  all,  some  idea  may  be  gath- 
ered from  a  brief  outline  of  athletics  in  municipalities, 
settlements,  vacation  homes  and  camps.  Young 
Women's  Christian  Associations,  industrial  welfare 
movements,  trade  unions,  schools  of  philanthropy  and 
reformatory  institutions. 

MUNICIPALITIES 

Recreation,  supported  and  controlled  by  the  people 
themselves,  is  necessarily  the  most  desirable  because  it 
is  the  most  democratic,  comprehensive  and  stimulat- 
ing. The  significance  of  the  general  movement  by  and 
for  the  people  cannot  be  overestimated.  It  started 
with  a  demand  for  "  breathing  spaces,"  until  now  the 

*  For  plan,  Keller,  "Experimental  Sociology,"  pp.  271  ff. 


112  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

playground,  recreation  center,  gymnasium,  vacation 
school,  athletic  field,  etc.,  are  recognized  as  of  vital 
social  importance. 

Playgrounds. — It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  empha- 
size the  need  of  playgrounds,  for  the  movement  on  the 
part  of  the  cities  to  obtain  them  is  general.  But  there 
is  great  need  to  emphasize  increased  use  of  play- 
grounds for  girls.  Because  the  boys  wait  around  in 
scores  to  get  in  and  the  girls  have  to  be  induced  to 
come  is  no  argument  that  they  do  not  want  or  need 
them.  A  prominent  leader  in  the  school  garden  move- 
ment in  New  York  writes: 

"  The  first  thought  is  always  for  the  boy  along  these 
lines,  generally  because  he  is  sure  to  smash  something 
if  space  is  not  allotted  to  him  in  which  to  work  off  his 
animal  spirit.  The  girl  has  her  domestic  duties.  After 
five  hours  of  schoolroom  she  must  help  mother  by  tak- 
ing care  of  the  baby  or  washing  dishes;  and  then  must 
sit  down  to  study  her  lessons  before  going  to  bed;  and 
if  her  animal  spirits  break  loose  and  childhood's  rights 
assert  themselves,  she  is  termed  a  tom-boy.  If  she  will 
quietly  walk  up  and  down,  interchanging  confidence  with 
some  other  girl,  it  is  considered  the  proper  thing." 

A  director  of  a  playground  says  in  a  letter  to  the 
writers : 

"  Girls  have  far  too  little  desire  for  play,  far  too 
little  imagination  and  do  not  care  for  active  games. 
They  know  very  few  and  these  are  almost  exclusively 
'  ring '  games,  with  stupid  or  vulgar  songs  to  accompany 
them.  Many  children  have  lost  the  spirit  of  play  from 
always  having  the  care  of  babies.  Our  efforts  are 
directed  toward  encouraging  activity,  teaching  new 
games,  reforming  vulgarities  of  street  games  and  giving 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        113 

physical,     social     and     mental     development     through 
games." 

The  Playground  Association  of  America,  which 
held  its  first  annual  meeting  in  Chicago  in  June,  1907, 
is  in  a  fair  way  to  crystallize  the  sentiment  and  to 
give  the  entire  playground  movement  great  impetus 
throughout  the  country.  Its  objects  are  "  to  study 
playground  construction  and  administration,  to  col- 
lect all  available  publications  and  material,  to  give 
publicity  to  its  information  and  to  register  and  keep 
account  of  all  trained  playground  workers."  It  is  to 
be  hoped  that  this  organization  will  do  much  for 
girls  both  in  the  presentation  and  discussion  of  their 
needs  and  in  urging  the  use  of  organized  games. ^ 

Without  the  playground  to  keep  the  play  spirit 
alive,  maintain  health  and  give  the  preliminary 
training  in  citizenship,  organized  games  reach  but 
few  people.  Unfortunately,  so  far  as  athletic  games 
are  concerned,  the  city  playground  does  not  offer  a 
wide  opportunity.  Few  are  large  enough  to  pro- 
vide for  more  than  a  basketball  court,  though  there  is 
a  growing  tendency  to  introduce  the  less  highly  or- 
ganized games.  The  number  wishing  to  use  them 
and  the  presence  of  mothers  and  babies  have  led  to 
the  substitution  of  games  which  admit  large  num- 
bers. Where  playground  work  is  not  supervised, 
graded  or  systematized,  children,  schoolgirls  and 
young  women  all  come  together  and  highly  organized 
group  games  are  not  possible. 

Notwithstanding  the  present  limitations  in  ath- 
'  Publishes  a  quarterly  magazine,  Tlie  Playground. 


114  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

letics,  the  playground  is  an  influential  factor  in  social 
ethics.  It  is  the  natural  place  for  both  girls  and  boys 
to  learn  right  from  wrong  and  to  understand  their 
rights  and  duties.  Social  morality  is  not  inborn,  and 
if  play  is  not  directed  it  may  not  be  learned  until 
too  late,  for  to  many  the  playground  presents  the 
only  opportunity.  Smart  tricks  will  take  the  place 
of  a  square  deal ;  good  minds  will  cover  small  morals ; 
and  the  girl  will  grow  into  one  who  brags  and  bulhes 
rather  than  one  who  respects  the  rights  and  attain- 
ments of  others.  "  Directed  play  "  is  the  ideal  toward 
which  superintendents  of  playgrounds  are  aiming, 
though  they  still  discriminate  and  offer  games  to  boys 
and  unorganized  play  to  girls. 

Park  Gymnasia — Parks  offer  better  facilities  for 
girls  than  do  city  playgrounds.  They  could  be  used 
even  more  for  organized  play  than  they  are  without 
impairing  their  esthetic  value.  No  city  offers  a  better 
illustration  of  what  may  be  done  in  the  utilization  of 
parks  for  play  than  Chicago,  and  so  far  as  we  know 
no  city  has  provided  such  nearly  equal  facilities  for 
men  and  boys  and  for  women  and  girls. 

These  parks  contain  athletic  fields  where  baseball 
and  tennis  are  played  in  summer  and  football  and 
tennis  in  the  fall.  Women  do  not  ordinarily  use  these. 
There  is  also  an  outdoor  field  and  gymnasium  for 
men.  Not  far  from  these  are  smaller  ones  for  women, 
similarly  equipped  but  with  more  provision  for  play 
and  less  for  heavy  apparatus,  which  also  contain 
swimming  pools  and  shower  baths. 

There  is  a  separate  playground  with  wading  pools 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        115 

and  sand  piles  for  small  children,  both  boys  and  girls, 
where  mothers  accompany  them. 

The  most  interesting  features  of  these  parks  are 
the  field  houses.  They  contain  a  library,  restaurant, 
club  room  and  auditorium  open  to  both  sexes.  At  one 
end  is  a  gymnasium  for  men  and  at  the  other  a  similar 
one  for  women,  somewhat  smaller.  These  are  com- 
pletely equipped  and  instruction  is  provided  in  bas- 
ketball, baseball,  gymnastics,  etc.,  in  winter  and  sum- 
mer. Contests  are  played  here  between  the  various 
teams.  The  regular  hours  are  from  2 :30  to  9 :30  in 
summer  and  from  3:30  to  9:30  in  winter.  On  Sun- 
days there  is  a  special  director.  A  report  of  the 
work  bears  testimony  to  the  social  value  of  athletic 
training.^ 

"  The  regular  class  work  for  girls  is  supplemented  by 
inter-park  basketball,  long-ball  and  other  games.  These 
games  are  arranged  in  the  manner  of  an  invitation  from 
one  park  to  play  as  guests  of  another  park. 

"  It  is  the  plan  to  conduct  out-of-door  work  from  May 
1st  to  November  1st.  Much  of  this  work  will  be  in- 
formal and  undirected  except  that  the  gymnasiums  will 
be  under  the  supervision  of  the  instructor  at  all  times. 
In  addition  to  the  informal  and  undirected  work,  formal 
class  work  in  free  exercise,  apparatus  work,  games  and 
athletic  events  will  be  conducted  afternoons  and  even- 
ings at  stated  hours. 

"  Emphasis  will  be  placed  upon  the  organization  of 
track  athletic  teams,  the  holding  of  dual,  triangular  and 
inter-park  meets,  arranged  and  conducted  with  reference 
to  group  interests. 

"  Invitation  athletic  meets  of  suitable  character  will 
be  conducted  among  the  girls.     The  guiding  principle  in 

*  Report  South  Park  Commission,  1906. 


116  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

conducting  all  out-of-door  work  will  be  to  involve  great 
numbers,  to  organize,  along  the  lines  of  simplicity,  large 
groups  for  interesting  and  beneficial  gymnastic  and 
athletic  activities. 

"  The  value  of  the  gymnasium  and  playgrounds  as 
agencies  with  which  to  combat  the  tendencies  toward 
social  and  physical  degeneration  which  inevitably  ac- 
company city  life,  has  been  emphasized  by  many 
eminent  pedagogues,  scientists  and  sociologists.  Our 
public  schools  are  first  in  combating  and  delaying  the 
effects  of  these  tendencies.  But  the  valuable  physical, 
mental  and  social  training  given  by  the  public  schools 
ends  with  the  vast  majority  of  children  when  they  are 
still  in  their  most  plastic  stages  of  development. 
Their  school  and  play  time  is  cut  short  because  of  the 
necessity  for  seeking  work  in  office,  factory  or  shop, 
there  to  become  a  cog  in  our  complex  industrial  life. 
The  park  gymnasiums  may  and  do  at  this  time  furnish 
the  training  needed  in  the  children's  muscular  and 
neural  development;  and  with  the  gymnasium  conducted 
with  reference  to  the  sociological  factors  involved,  it 
may  be  claimed  that  this  work  is  a  valuable  adjunct  to 
the  public  school  system." 

There  is  a  growing  tendency  in  most  city  parks  to 
provide  athletic  facilities  for  girls,  especially  in  bas- 
ketball and  tennis.  Hockey  is  used  occasionally  and 
can  well  be  urged,  for  by  frequent  changes  of  field  it 
is  not  hard  on  the  turf.  One  city  park  provides  an 
out-of-door  gymnasium  with  a  canvas  top  and  open 
sides  and  also  an  open  space  350  x  150  feet  as  an 
exercise  ground  for  girls. 

Athletic  Fields. — Outside  of  parks,  it  is  only  here 
and  there  that  much  attention  is  paid  to  girls,  and 
there  are  few  athletic  fields  for  them.  We  have  been 
able  to  find  but  one  municipal  athletic  field  and  that 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        117 

is  not  In  use  because  there  is  no  money  to  put  it  into 
condition.  Even  where  facilities,  such  as  tennis  nets 
and  basketball  courts,  are  provided,  girls  are  too  fre- 
quently left  to  play  by  themselves.  When  an  enthusi- 
ast or  even  director  or  patron  of  athletic  games  is 
asked  about  such  work  for  girls,  he  usually  looks  dis- 
tressed and  says :  "  Well,  now  I  don't  know  about 
girls,  but  for  boys  !  "  And  then  for  five  minutes  there 
will  be  an  eloquent  description  of  facilities  provided 
for  boys.  Girls  have  been  neglected  so  long  that  it  is 
not  enough  to  put  in  the  equipment  and  say  "  now 
play."  The  subject  needs  especial  attention  to  devise 
ways  of  making  games  attractive,  beneficial  and  more 
varied. 

Not  only  are  cities  interested  in  this  matter  of  play, 
but  there  is  a  growing  interest  in  town  gymnasia  in 
small  towns  of  from  1,000  to  5,000.  Unfortunately 
again,  this  is  chiefly  confined  to  men,  and  there  are 
few  or  no  places  of  recreation  for  the  girl  after  she 
is  out  of  school. 

Recreation  Centers,  Vacation  Schools,  Etc. — 
These  are  ordinarily  a  part  of  the  school  system  and 
are  largely  for  children.  The  growing  use  of 
schoolrooms  and  roofs  where  girls  are  taught  games 
is  a  matter  for  congratulation,  and  most  of  the  large 
cities  make  some  effort  to  maintain  recreation  centers. 
Without  the  use  of  school  buildings,  much  of  the 
athletic  work  would  be  impossible.  So  rapidly  has  this 
been  extended  that  in  some  cities  not  enough  super- 
visors of  play  can  be  found  to  take  charge  of  those 
willing  to  come  and  play. 


118  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

In  one  city,  there  are  twenty-one  such  centers, 
twelve  for  men  and  boys  and  nine  for  women  and  girls. 
A  principal,  club  director  and  athletic  instructor  are 
provided.  Those  who  attend  often  form  clubs  and 
sometimes  assist  in  the  discipline  of  unruly  members. 
The  following  description  of  the  work  in  these  evening 
recreation  centers  for  women  and  girls  shows  how 
little  educational  work  is  considered  even  in  the  most 
progressive  schools: 

"  The  work  in  the  recreation  centers  was  organized 
into  four  distinct  departments — the  reading  and  study 
room,  the  literary  and  debating  clubs,  quiet  games  and 
gymnastic  teams. 

"  The  program  for  girls'  center  differs  but  slightly 
from  that  of  the  boys.  Their  athletic  exercises  are 
always  taken  in  classes  with  an  instructor,  and  their 
club  work  is  distinct  and  progressive.  They  care  less 
for  games  of  skill  and  more  for  reading.  The  last  half- 
hour  of  each  evening  is  spent  in  graceful  dancing.  It 
required  this  to  eliminate  the  romping  of  which  they 
are  so  fond,  and  the  stately,  old-fashioned  minuet  has 
been  serviceable  in  this  direction.  The  women  are  quite 
as  enthusiastic  as  the  men  over  their  club.  They  are 
fond  of  games  and  like  gymnastics." 

The  vacation  school  has  made  games  a  large  part  of 
its  work  in  many  cities  and  has  helped  to  solve  the 
summer  problem.  Occasionally  definite  periods  are  set 
aside  for  organized  games.  Another  feature  of  some 
vacation  schools  is  the  excursion,  where  the  greater 
part  of  the  time  is  spent  in  playing  games. 

School  Gardens. — Only  an  occasional  school  gar- 
den considers  play  for  girls.  The  out-of-door  work 
in  caring  for  the  garden  is  usually  considered  suffi- 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        119 

cient.     One  superintendent  of  a  school  garden,  who 
sees  the  need  clearly,  writes :  ^ 

"  After  garden  hours,  the  older  boys  and  girls  hung 
about  helplessly,  looking  for  something  to  do.  The 
ground  adjoining  the  garden  is  hilly  and  was  covered 
with  a  rank  growth  of  weeds,  but  after  weeks  of  hard 
work,  two  tennis  courts  and  basketball  ground  were 
evolved.  The  boys  formed  a  baseball  team  and  secured 
the  use  of  the  grounds  a  short  distance  away.  Through 
the  courtesy  of  an  owner,  a  plot  of  ground  adjoining  the 
garden  was  laid  out. 

"  The  main  feature  of  the  playgrounds  has  been  the 
team  work.  The  garden  pupils  are  girls  and  boys  of 
the  grammar  grades,  soon  to  leave  school  and  enter  the 
working  world.  There  they  have  two  great  lessons  to 
learn;  first,  to  do  one's  own  work  well;  second,  to  work 
with  others,  subordinating  individual  interest  to  a  com- 
mon end.  The  first  lesson  is  begun  in  the  garden,  in 
the  care  and  responsibility  for  the  individual  plot.  The 
second  is  begun  on  the  playground.  The  end  of  team 
work  is  the  joy  of  winning  and  to  attain  that  end  all 
must  work  as  one.  This  is  a  far  harder  lesson  than 
the  first.  No  one  save  the  attendant  teacher  knows 
how  often  a  team  threatened  to  go  to  pieces  because 
'  Mary  was  mad  at  Kate,'  or  '  John  told  Fred  last  night 
he  wasn't  any  good  anyway.' 

"  In  spite  of  such  difficulties,  two  baseball  and  six 
basketball  teams  were  organized  and  did  verj'  good 
work.  Scorebooks  were  kept  to  show  the  result  of 
each  game.  An  examination  of  the  scorebooks  shows 
a  total  of  103  children  engaged  in  team  work  during  the 
season.  This  number  does  not  include  those  children 
using  the  tennis,  quoits,  etc.  After  garden  hours,  young 
people  from  neighborhoods  near  both  gardens  used  the 
tennis  and  basketball  grounds,  bringing  their  own  nets; 
balls  and  racquets.  When  match  games  were  played 
between   the   two   gardens   enthusiasm   ran   high.     Usu- 

'  Report,  School  Gardens,  Philadelphia,  1905. 


120  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

ally  there  was  an  attendance  of  several  hundred  parents, 
friends  and  interested  neighbors  at  each  game.  '  That 
baseball  has  been  the  making  of  my  boys,'  remarked  one 
enthusiastic  mother." 

A  leader  in  the  School  Garden  movement  in  New 
York  says: 

"  During  1902,  when  I  started  the  Children's  Garden, 
there  was  no  provision  for  gymnastic  exercises  in  the 
neighborhood.  One  day  the  police  called  my  attention 
to  an  over-grown  girl  of  fourteen,  who  was  having  a 
most  enjoyable  time  sliding  head  first  from  the  roof  of 
our  cottage.  He  asked  if  I  thought  that  proper.  I 
looked  over  the  lots.  Some  men  were  playing  ball  at  one 
end,  some  boys  were  intent  upon  their  games  at  another. 
I  thought  of  this  awkwardly  tall  girl  trying  to  reach 
womanhood  through  the  environment  of  a  poor  two- 
room  home,  with  no  fresh  air  or  sunshine,  and  I  replied 
to  the  officer,  '  No  one  seems  to  be  looking  at  her  but 
you,  and  if  you  look  toward  the  river  you  will  not  see 
her,'  and  she  slid  up  and  down  that  roof  happily 
oblivious  of  a  weary  world.  I  very  soon  had  some 
simple  gymnasium  apparatus  placed,  and  the  weather 
never  seemed  too  cold  to  keep  the  girls  off  the  lot." 

Summary  and  Suggestions. — This  brief  account 
of  municipal  activities  shows  a  little  of  what  is  being 
done  and  holds  out  high  hope  for  the  future.  There 
are,  in  addition  to  extending  the  movements  described, 
many  other  things  which  the  friends  of  games  for 
girls  may  urge: 

There  are  many  vacant  lots  in  cities  which  the 
owners,  if  rightly  approached,  would  permit  to  be 
used  for  such  games  as  basketball,  indoor  baseball, 
hockey  and  less  highly  organized  games.  Settlements 
could  undertake  to  provide  supervisors  of  play. 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        121 

Play  festivals,  including  organized  games  and  ex- 
hibitions by  municipalities  of  their  work  in  vacation 
schools,  recreation  centers,  etc.,  would  assist  in  stimu- 
lating interest.  One  city  conducts  civic  games  for 
men ;  why  not  play  festivals  for  girls .'' 

Germany  has  a  "  Central  Committee  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Games,"  which  consists  of  prominent  gov- 
ernment officials,  physical  trainers,  educators,  etc. 
Its  work  is  to  study  the  games  and  sports  of  other 
countries  and  to  introduce  them  into  Germany.  It 
has  also  not  only  systematized  and  graded  games  but 
has  urged  shorter  school  hours  so  there  will  be  avail- 
able time  for  play.  It  has  also  hjeld  normal  schools 
of  play,  thereby  training  several  thousand  teachers, 
conducted  play  congresses  and  published  excellent 
periodicals  and  reports  in  the  interests  of  play.  Some 
such  movement  is  needed  to  develop  the  play  spirit 
and  provide  additional  training  and  facilities  for 
girls  in  this  country. 

The  limited  space  available  in  cities  for  play- 
grounds has  led  the  Director  of  Physical  Training  of 
the  New  York  City  schools  to  suggest  a  twenty-story 
playground.  He  estimates  that  below  Fourteenth 
Street  there  are  fully  225,000  children  and  that  the 
city  provides  playgrounds  for  only  about  seven  per 
cent,  of  them.  So  far  as  we  know  the  need  of  cities 
and  the  slender  resources  in  time  and  money  of  those 
whom  it  is  sought  to  reach,  smaller  buildings  more 
convenient  to  the  crowded  neighborhoods,  with  pro- 
visions for  organized  games  and  equal  facilities  for 
girls  and  boys,  would  more  adequately  meet  the  need. 


122  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

In  the  smaller  cities,  a  wider  use  of  schoolhouses 
and  the  establishment  of  small  simple  playhouses  for 
women  are  within  the  immediate  possibilities.  Any 
floor  space  which  will  provide  for  a  basketball  court, 
small  indoor  baseball  diamond,  ring  hockey  and  for 
less  highly  organized  games  and  for  folk  plays  and 
dances  is  highly  desirable. 

SETTLEMENTS 

Settlements  were  among  the  first  to  provide  games 
for  girls.  In  many  cities  they  have  stood  behind  the 
playground  movement  and  have  made  it  possible. 
They  have  also  acquainted  the  neighborhood  with  its 
opportunity  or  taken  parties  of  small  girls  to  the 
centers  provided.  Some  of  the  settlements  maintain 
country  houses  or  summer  camps  where  games  are 
played.  During  the  summer,  excursion  parties  con- 
stitute a  large  part  of  their  activities  and  organized 
games  are  made  a  prominent  feature  for  boys,  though 
not  so  much  for  girls.  Where  settlements  have  a  small 
yard  it  is  usually  turned  into  a  playground,  furnish- 
ing a  practice  field  for  the  battery  of  the  settlement 
nine,  or  is  used  by  the  small  children  for  minor  games. 
The  residents  also  take  the  settlement  teams  off  to 
vacant  fields  where  they  can  practise.  This  is  not 
always  an  easy  thing  to  do.  One  of  the  women  resi- 
dents was  invited  to  accompany  the  ball  team  to  an 
outlying  park  in  one  of  the  large  cities  on  Sunday. 
Thinking  baseball  was  prohibited  there,  she  declined. 
After  much  urging  she  told  the  team  to  have  its  first 
practice  alone,  and  if  there  was  no  trouble  she  would 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        123 

go  the  following  Sunday.  They  returned  jubilant, 
with  the  announcement,  "  Say,  you  oughter  gone — 
we  only  got  chased  five  times  by  the  cop  and  got  over 
the  fence  every  time.  We's  had  a  grand  game  and 
can  play  dere." 

Facilities. — In  the  matter  of  athletics  settlements 
have  not  only  been  pioneers  but  continue  largely  to 
influence  public  opinion  and  to  take  the  initiative.  Of 
the  one  hundred  settlements  responding  to  our  in- 
quiries, sixty  per  cent,  provided  some  facilities  for 
organized  games,  independently  of  the  neighboring 
parks  and  recreation  centers;  twenty-eight  per  cent, 
had  no  work ;  and  twelve  per  centi  were  building  or 
equipping  gymnasia.  Of  the  twenty-eight  per  cent, 
a  few  stated  that  they  had  given  up  their  work  be- 
cause playgrounds  had  been  opened  in  their  neigh- 
borhood. Forty-five  per  cent,  had  a  playground  of 
their  own  in  addition  to  a  gymnasium,  or  were  near 
playgrounds  which  they  used. 

While  the  amount  of  work  provided  for  girls  is 
encouraging  and  is  increasing,  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  the  sixty  per  cent,  which  provided  work  did  not 
extend  it  to  girls  and  did  not  appear  to  realize  its 
value,  though  they  were  sure  it  was  "  a  good  thing 
for  boys."  Not  one  settlement  stated  that  it  shared 
the  gymnasium  equally  between  girls  and  boys  and 
but  few  said  that  a  special  effort  was  made  to  interest 
girls  so  they  would  use  the  time  already  allowed  them. 

Basketball  is  so  popular  that  some  girls  will  play 
no  other  game.  Gymnastic  games  are  sometimes  used, 
but  there  is  a  deplorable  lack  of  variety  and  absence 


124  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

of  any  educational  idea.  Of  the  sixty  per  cent,  of  the 
settlements  which  have  gymnasia,  only  a  trifle  more 
than  thirty  per  cent,  provided  for  organized  play,  and 
that  chiefly  in  the  way  of  basketball. 

There  is  also  a  definite  need  for  supervision  and 
trained  instructors.  Many  settlements  have  not 
enough  work  to  aff'ord  a  paid  instructor.  Most  of 
them  are  located  in  the  crowded  sections  of  cities, 
where  rental  of  floor  space  is  very  high  and  must  con- 
tent themselves  with  the  use  of  a  small  room,  roof, 
or  by  covering  a  small  yard.  Thirty-six  per  cent,  of 
the  instructors  are  college  girls  who  may  or  may  not 
have  had  athletic  training;  thirty-seven  per  cent, 
have  had  some  training  in  schools  of  physical  train- 
ing; eighteen  per  cent,  are  residents  with  no  especial 
training  and  the  remainder  are  "  professional  men 
coaches."  In  only  about  seven  per  cent,  are  measure- 
ments or  examinations  required  or  any  special  study 
made  of  the  needs  of  working  women  and  badly  nour- 
ished girls.  This  is  perhaps  the  chief  oversight,  as  the 
dangers  from  over-exertion  are  so  great.  Almost 
every  settlement  surely  has  some  physician  suffi- 
ciently interested  to  take  up  this  matter. 

Contests. — In  the  matter  of  contests  there  is  a 
somewhat  conservative  attitude.  One  half  do  not  play 
outside  teams,  and  of  the  other  half,  about  five  per 
cent,  discourage  but  do  not  prohibit  them  and  empha- 
size inter-class  games.  In  one  settlement  we  found 
teams  playing  three  or  four  match  games  a  month, 
during  the  season, with  outside  teams, but  such  excesses 
are  not  common.  One  to  three  inter-settlement  contests 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        125 

a  year  seem  deii^rable,  for  inter-class  contests  are  not 
always  possible,  as  where  the  small  gymnasium  accom- 
modates but  one  class.  Inter-settlement  contests  serve 
a  necessary  purpose,  for  the  interest  is  difficult  to 
keep,  owing  to  the  competition  of  dance  halls  and 
other  places  of  amusement  in  neighborhoods  filled  with 
daily  dramatic  incidents. 

Athletic  Associations. — It  is  regrettable  that  so 
few  settlements  have  any  kind  of  athletic  associa- 
tions to  stimulate  interest,  develop  social  qualities  and 
teach  the  girls  self-government.  At  present  the  whole 
matter  is  usually  directed  by  residents  and  the  social 
features  are  consequently  much  neglected.  Exhibi- 
tion games,  field  days  and  meets  have  almost  no  place, 
and  in  some  cases  the  gymnasium  is  to  the  girl  simply 
a  place  where  she  may  dance. 

Systems  of  Work. — These  vary  so  much  that  it  is 
impossible  to  give  an  accurate  general  account  of 
them.  The  usual  amount  of  time  given  to  girls  is  two 
evenings  or  afternoons  per  week.  One  settlement 
gives  but  one  and  one-half  hours  a  week  while  another 
gives  three  evenings  a  week,  and  some  have  afternoon 
classes  and  grade  the  work.  The  usual  plan  is  to  have 
the  first  part  of  the  hour  devoted  to  gymnastics  and 
the  latter  part  to  games.  The  classes  are  frequently 
made  up  by  the  various  clubs.  One  settlement  has 
early  afternoon  classes  for  women;  late  afternoon 
classes  for  school  girls  and  evening  classes  for  work- 
ing girls.  In  another  the  gymnasium  is  used  during 
the  year  by  about  five  hundred  different  women  and 
girls  and  cannot  meet  the  demand. 


126  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

In  a  few  the  systems,  in  spite  of  tl^  limited  facili- 
ties and  great  numbers  using  them,  are  so  good  that 
they  may  be  helpful  to  others,  whose  available  space 
is  perhaps  limited  to  a  single  room. 

In  one,  classes  are  divided  into  women's  senior  and 
women's  intermediate  classes,  and  into  intermediate 
school  girls'  and  junior  girls'  classes.  Each  meets 
twice  every  week  for  an  hour.  The  first  part  of 
the  hour  is  given  to  gymnastics  and  the  latter  part 
to  games.  Saturday  evenings  are  left  open  for 
contests  and  about  three  contests  a  season  are  played. 
Evening  classes  are  reserved  for  those  employed  dur- 
ing the  day.  Physical  examinations  are  made  by  a 
physician,  corrective  work  prescribed  and  games  are 
supervised  by  a  graduate  of  a  physical  training 
school. 

In  another,  two  afternoons  and  evenings  a  week  are 
given  to  girls  and  women,  one  afternoon  and  evening 
is  given  to  gymnastics  and  the  other  to  children's 
games  and  athletics.  One  inter-settlement  contest  a 
year  is  played,  measurements  are  taken  before  a  girl 
is  permitted  to  play  and  the  work  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  two  physical  training  school  students. 

A  third,  with  a  comparatively  small  gymnasium 
for  girls,  has  so  good  a  system  that  it  has  eight- 
een classes  a  week.  One  afternoon  is  reserved  for 
contests. 

Defects  and  Suggestions. — The  defects,  if  they 
can  really  be  called  such,  in  view  of  the  signal  service 
rendered  to  the  playground  movement  and  of  what 
has  been  accomplished  in  the  face  of  limitations  of 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        127 

space  and  equipment  and  lack  of  competent  super- 
vision, are  the  following: 

Not  enough  thought  is  given  to  work  for  girls. 
The  temptations  due  to  crowded  quarters  of  cities 
are  quite  as  great  for  them  as  for  boys  and  their 
morals  quite  as  easily  corrupted. 

Too  little  attention  is  paid  to  the  needs  of  working 
girls.  A  variety  of  games,  folk  dances,  etc.,  adapted 
to  their  needs  are  essential.  Basketball,  as  the  only 
game,  is  too  strenuous  for  those  who  have  had  no 
training  and  who  work  from  eight  to  fourteen  hours 
per  day. 

Some  of  the  disadvantages  are  due  to  the  accept- 
ance of  the  professional  "  coach."  It  is  feasible  for 
several  settlements  to  combine  and  engage  a  trained 
'instructor.  These  instructors,  as  one  settlement 
worker  writes,  should  be  "  trained  to  handle  working 
girls'  classes ;  if  they  are  not,  they  are  often  failures." 

Organized  games  have  too  small  a  place  in  camps, 
country  houses,  excursions,  etc.,  conducted  by  settle- 
ment workers.  Girls  off  on  vacations  are  too  much 
inclined  to  indulge  in  "  horse  play,"  or  sit  about  ex- 
changing confidences,  talking  of  young  men  and  "  re- 
lating experiences." 

There  is  a  tendency  to  discontinue  the  gymnasium 
when  a  municipal  playground  is  started  and  to  trust 
to  the  latter  to  do  the  needed  work.  This  seems  to  be 
a  mistake,  for  there  are  many  mothers  who  will  not 
let  their  daughters  go  to  a  public  playground  and 
are  just  as  careful  as  though  they  could  afford  a 
private  instructor.     The  settlement  that  keeps  up  its 


128  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

own  athletic  work  while  assisting  in  obtaining  a  play- 
ground has  a  much  better  chance  of  retaining  its  hold 
upon  the  young  girls  in  the  neighborhood. 

A  wider  use  of  roofs,  vacant  lots  or  vacant  rooms 
could  be  urged.  Hockey  can  be  played  on  vacant  lots 
until  winter.  Indoor  baseball  and  ring  hockey  can  be 
played  in  quite  small  rooms.  As  no  equipment  is 
needed,  the  use  of  some  of  these  vacant  spaces  might 
be  obtained  free  or  at  a  small  rental. 

Exhibition  games,  field  days  and  meets  which  afford 
social  features  need  emphasis.  Folk  dances  could  be 
made  an  attractive  part  of  these  and  would  help  to 
attract  the  girls. 

The  educational  and  social  value  of  athletic  clubs 
could  be  increased  by  interesting  lectures  under  their 
auspices.  There  are  inter-settlement  associations  for 
boys,  why  not  for  girls.?  These  could  be  under  the 
supervision  of  the  combined  settlements,  and  might 
assist  in  obtaining  a  higher  standard  and  in  regulat- 
ing contests  and  developing  social  features.  A  con- 
ference of  settlements  in  each  city  to  discuss,  not  only 
the  value  of  athletic  work,  but  to  help  each  other  work 
out  better  systems,  might  lead  to  a  wider  adoption  of 
games,  played  under  better  conditions. 

VACATION    HOMES    AND    CAMPS 

These  do  not  offer  so  good  an  opportunity  for 
sustained  education  as  do  playgrounds  and  settlement 
gymnasia.  Although  the  period  of  the  outing  is 
short,  usually  limited  to  one  or  two  weeks,  the  girls 
during  that  time  are  entirely  under  the  influence  of 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        129 

the  homes,  and  it  can  be  made  the  most  of  in  every 
way.  The  director  can  introduce  games  at  least 
once  each  day,  and  if  minor  games  are  used,  twice 
or  oftener.  For  working  girls,  suddenly  having  all 
of  their  energy  released  and  needing  some  outlet, 
games  offer  a  splendid  opportunity.  They  help  to 
solve  the  problem  of  discipline ;  furnish  a  good  alter- 
native to  dancing,  which  is  becoming  far  too  much 
emphasized ;  make  an  excellent  topic  of  conversation ; 
and  in  even  this  short  time  some  idea  of  the  social 
qualities  required  in  group  work  can  be  gained.  Em- 
ploying a  game  director  is  an  experiment  worth  try- 
ing in  each  vacation  home. 

Summer  camps  for  girls,  both  for  study  and  recrea- 
tion, are  growing  in  favor,  and  many  institutions  are 
establishing  them.  The  demand  for  persons  capable 
of  taking  charge  of  them  exceeds  the  supply.  The 
plan  deserves  a  wider  extension,  not  only  to  working 
girls  but  to  the  leisure  class  as  well.  Many  girls  are 
only  made  more  individualistic  by  sending  them 
abroad  at  an  early  age  with  a  chaperon,  while  a  little 
group  training  and  closeness  to  nature  would  be  a 
greater  benefit  in  many  ways.  Such  camps  ordinarily 
have  all  of  the  individual  sports,  such  as  riding,  canoe- 
ing, swimming,  etc.,  which  are  excellent  recreation 
but  are  not  socially  educational.  The  "  athletic 
tutor  "  of  the  right  kind  is  much  needed  here. 

YOUNG  WOMEN'S   CHRISTIAN    ASSOCIATIONS 

The  influence  these  associations  may  have  on  the 
social  education  of  women  can  be  paralleled  by  no 


130  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

other  group  at  the  present  time.  There  are  large 
numbers  of  working  girls  of  the  middle  class  who  have 
no  other  social  centers.  There  is  a  considerable 
number  of  unemployed  girls  of  the  middle  class  who 
are  not  permitted  to  work  whose  homes  and  social  ac- 
tivities do  not  satisfy  them.  There  are  girls  who  wish 
to  contribute  to  social  betterment  in  activities  other 
than  those  of  the  church.  There  are  also  graduates 
from  high  school  and  college  who  have  played  games 
in  school  and  take  up  work  in  the  city.  What  place  is 
there  for  them  to  continue  their  physical  and  group 
activities?  There  is  still  another  group  greatly  in 
need  of  some  social  outlet,  namely  the  factory  and 
shop  workers  in  small  industrial  centers.  All  of  these 
are  in  need  of  the  training  as  well  as  the  recreation 
which  athletic  games  provide.  An  investigation  made 
by  one  of  the  Association  members  shows  something 
of  tliis:' 

"  City  life  is  each  year  crowding  more  people  into 
smaller  space  with  consequently  diminishing  opportu- 
nity for  out-of-door  work,  and  artificial  means  must  be 
provided  to  induce  a  sufficient  amount  of  exercise  indoors. 
The  total  population  of  the  United  States  has  increased 
twenty  per  cent,  during  the  last  ten  years,  but  the  city 
population  has  increased  thirty-six  per  cent,  during  the 
same  time.  About  ten  million  American  women  and 
girls  live  in  cities.  For  many  of  these  a  gymnasium 
would  provide  a  most  wholesome  health  measure.  It  is 
within  the  reach  of  some,  though  not  a  large  proportion. 
In  this  country  the  number  of  wage-earning  women  above 
fifteen  years  of  age  is  almost  five  million,  and  the  num- 
ber of  wage-earning  girls  between  ten  and  fifteen  years 

*  Special  Report  of  Y.  W.  C.  A  ,  1905. 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        131 

is  almost  half  a  million.  For  most  wage-earners  the 
daylight  hours  are  the  working  hours.  Rest  and  recrea- 
tion must  come  after  dark,  when  many  kinds  of  out- 
door exercise  are  out  of  the  question.  Pleasant  and 
safe  and  wholesome  good  times  are  needed,  and  for  most 
of  these  women  the  expense  must  not  be  great.  Many 
of  them  are  supporting  others  as  well  as  themselves." 


Some  of  these  women  need  recreation,  some  educa- 
tion, some  a  good  time,  some  social  expression,  some 
happiness,  while  others  are  full  of  pent-up  energy 
which  is  likely  to  lead  them  to  the  dance  hall  or  other 
amusement  places  where  they  can  make  a  noise  and 
"  have  a  good  time."  It  becomes  a  question  not 
solely  of  exercise  and  recreation  but  of  morality  and 
public  concern. 

Now  the  girl  who  has  worked  all  day  in  a  stuffy 
shop  until  her  eyes  and  fingers  and  back  and  head 
ache;  the  girl  who  has  only  a  four-room  apartment 
which  she  shares  with  many  others ;  the  girl  whose 
body  is  tried  by  physical  exertion  and  spirit  by  its 
yearning  for  something  bright,  relaxing  and  beauti- 
ful,— these  cannot  be  expected  to  choose  the  Associa- 
tion's rooms  (not  because  their  intentions  are  bad)  un- 
less it  has  some  way  of  understanding  their  life  and 
of  meeting  their  needs.  The  Bible,  sewing  or  cooking 
classes  may  or  may  not  do  this,  for  they  may  not  be 
ready  for  them.  But  the  gymnasium  and  games  will 
do  it  if  they  are  open  to  them. 

Facilities  and  Methods  of  Work. — What  is  beino- 
done  to  meet  this  need?  Their  investigator  says  fur- 
ther of  the  Association  work : 


132  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

"  Of  the  1 00  largest  cities  in  the  United  States,  43 
have  no  gymnasium  work;  of  the  77  cities  having  a 
population  of  50,000  or  more,  33  have  none,  and  no 
Association  gymnasium  in  a  city  often  means  none  at 
aU. 

"  Between  February  and  May,  1905,  I  received  from 
nearly  all  the  Associations  under  the  International 
Board  and  under  the  American  Committee  answers  to  a 
lost  of  questions  in  regard  to  the  physical  work.  The 
replies  represent  139  city  Associations  under  both 
boards.  From  10  no  replies  were  received;  52  are  at- 
tempting no  work  at  present;  4  send  their  pupils  to  a 
college  gymnasium;  33  have  a  room  or  gymnasium  part 
of  the  time;  50  have  a  room  or  gymnasium  the  whole 
time.  This  gives  83  doing  more  or  less  work.  Thirty- 
nine  of  these  have  a  teacher  for  part  time;  37  have  a 
teacher  or  physical  director  whole  time;  7  have  a  phys- 
ical director  with  one  or  more  assistants. 

"  Seventy-seven  Associations  report  708  weekly  ses- 
sions with  an  enrollment  of  9,515.  As  to  the  equipment, 
I  did  not  state.  Eleven  have  none,  1 1  have  '  light  ap- 
paratus '  only,  60  have  small  to  complete  equipments. 

"  These  facts  give  us  some  cause  for  pride  in  our  As- 
sociation, and  more  reason  for  hope  and  courage,  and 
still  more  occasion  to  redouble  our  efforts. 

"  With  only  two  Associations  doing  gymnasium  work 
sixteen  years  ago,  we  now  have  over  80  doing  more  or 
less  in  this  line." 

The  inquiries  made  by  us  verify  these  statements. 
Speaking  of  the  growth  of  physical  training  and  the 
difficulties,  one  of  our  correspondents  says : 

"  The  beginnings  of  the  gymnasia  were  necessarily 
small.  First,  the  Associations  found  a  few  rooms  where 
meetings  for  young  women  could  be  held.  These  meet- 
ings were  usually  of  a  religious  or  social  nature.  As  the 
meetings  grew,  larger  quarters  were  secured.  Often- 
times the  boards  of  managers  were  fortunate  enough  to 
raise  money  to  erect  Association   buildings.     Although 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        133 

there  were  some  who  recognized  the  need  of  physical 
training,  the  quarters  given  for  it  were  the  places  which 
could  be  converted  into  something  else  should  the  '  fad  ' 
pass ;  or  when  rooms  were  not  needed  for  other  purposes, 
they  were  used  for  gymnastic  work. 

"  For  the  most  part,  in  the  Associations  recently  built 
the  gymnasium  is  given  the  proper  space  and  place,  not 
in  the  basement  but  on  the  ground  floor  or  higher  up; 
not  a  place  that  can  be  converted  into  something  else, 
but  a  gymnasium  well  equipped  with  locker  and  dress- 
ing-room accommodations.  The  newer  Association  gym- 
nasiums have  swimming  pools  as  well  as  baths." 

The  work  being  done  in  one  or  two  of  the  associa- 
tion gymnasia  shows  the  possibilities.  One  has  a  floor 
space  of  65  x  45  feet,  excellent  shower  baths,  etc. 
The  work  consists  of  Swedish  gymnastics,  games  and 
basketball  and  fencing.  There  are  also  medical  ex- 
aminations. The  only  objection  to  this  plan,  which 
prevails  in  many  other  associations  as  well,  is  the 
high  fee,  which  in  many  cases  makes  the  work  pro- 
hibitive. The  initiation  fee  is  $1  and  for  two  lessons 
a  week  is  $5  from  September  25  to  May  5.  A  locker 
costs  $1  more.  The  average  pay  per  week  of  the  fac- 
tory worker  is  about  $5 ;  the  average  pay  of  the  clerk 
in  the  store  is  $6  to  $8.  The  average  rate  of  board 
is  $3  for  the  former  and  $4  for  the  latter.  Now 
girls  earning  these  sums  and  most  in  need  of  physical 
work  cannot  pay  $5  a  season.  Many  of  them  cannot 
even  afford  to  go  to  a  dance  unless  some  young  man 
takes  them.  Cannot  some  means  be  found  to  bring 
working  women  into  the  gymnasium  without  such 
high  fees .''  This  is  not  a  question  primarily  of  educa- 
tion, as  are  clubs  and  classes — it  is  a  question  of  citi- 


134»  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

zenship,  of  social  morality  and  often  of  virtue  as  well. 
Here  settlements  and  institutional  churches  are  clearly 
in  advance. 

Another  association  in  the  West  offers  some  excel- 
lent opportunities.  It  provides  gymnastics,  basket- 
ball, center-ball,  scrimmage,  gymnastic  games  and 
children's  games.  The  gymnasium  is  open  eight 
months  of  the  year,  the  classes  meet  twice  each  week, 
and  twenty  minutes  of  class  time  is  given  to  games. 
An  examination  of  heart  and  lungs  is  required  and 
other  measurements  and  strength  tests  are  taken.  It 
has  classes  for  business  women  in  the  evening,  and  for 
women  of  leisure,  high  school  girls  and  children  in  the 
afternoon.  Class  contests  in  ball  games  are  occasion- 
ally permitted.  There  are  occasional  meetings  of 
classes  in  a  social  way,  and  an  effort  is  made  to  pro- 
mote good-fellowship  through  the  gymnasium. 

Defects. — The  investigations  made  by  association 
members  and  by  us  on  the  whole  show  discouraging 
conditions.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  a  well-defined 
antagonism  to  athletics  in  many  associations,  due  to 
the  fear  of  the  effect  of  competition  and  to  an  igno- 
rance of  their  value  as  training  for  good  citizenship. 
Less  than  one-third  of  the  eighty-three  associations 
who  offer  gymnastics  include  any  athletics  whatever, 
confining  their  work  to  formal  gymnastic  classes.  In 
the  three  main  seaport  towns  where  great  numbers  of 
young  immigrant  workci^s  arrive  yearly,  and  where 
thousands  of  working  girls  live,  but  one  association 
offers  any  work  in  athletics.  In  the  second  there  is  no 
gymnasium  and  in  the  third  athletics  have  been  dis- 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        135 

continued  because  the  director  is  not  in  sympathy  with 
games  and  because  in  her  judgment  they  "  make  the 
girls  rough." 

We  have  been  unable  to  find  any  such  emphasis  upon 
the  educational  value  as  exists  in  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  and 
there  is  an  utter  absence  of  any  general  lectures  or 
real  instruction  even  where  games  are  played.  Little 
attention  is  paid  to  the  qualifications  of  instructors. 

The  Young  Women's  Christian  Associations,  in 
common  with  the  settlements,  have  by  far  the  great- 
est opportunity  for  making  athletics  a  means  of  edu- 
cation. Fair  play,  regard  for  the  rights  of  others, 
self-reliance  and  toleration,  honesty  and  many  other 
qualities  previously  emphasized,  may  be  brought  out 
as  in  no  other  classes.  The  Golden  Rule  and  many  of 
the  precepts  taught  in  Bible  classes  are  but  half 
appreciated,  until  applied  in  games  to  daily  com- 
petition. There  are  no  other  organizations  to  meet 
this  great  need,  and  the  social  responsibility  therefore 
rests  for  the  present  with  these  two  organizations. 

Remedies. — In  the  report  previously  quoted,  sotiio 
valuable  suggestions  are  made  which  we  repeat  here  in 
the  hope  that  some,  who  have  not  seen  the  report,  may 
become  more  deeply  interested  in  the  work. 

"  That  the  physical  department  be  an  integral  part 
of  the  Association  work.  It  is  not  just  physical  work, 
and  girls  should  be  made  welcome  in  this  if  they  can- 
not give  time  to  other  things. 

"  Our  gymnasiums  must  provide  as  good  work  as  the 
very  best  if  they  would  hold  their  own,  and  they  must 
add  a  real  sympathetic  love  for  each  girl. 

"  Every  class  session  should  have  in  it  some  element  of 


136  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

friendliness,   sociability   and   recreation   in    addition '  to 
well-planned  exercises, 

"  There  are  many  details  in  which  physical  directors 
need  the  help  of  each  other.  Could  we  not  plan  some 
regular  means  of  conference  and  mutual  help?  A 
clearing  house  of  ideas  and  suggestions  is  also  sug- 
gested! Valuable  conferences  are  held  each  summer  in 
which- games  plaj^  a  large  part,  as  a  means  of  recreation. 
Could  not  these  develop  something  of  the  educational 
value  and  be  made  more  helpful.''  " 

To  these  we  may  add  the  following: 

In  building  a  new  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  build  the  gym- 
nasium first  and  add  the  other  parts  of  the  building 
afterward. 

Obtain  an  instructor  who  believes  in  both  gymnas- 
tics and  athletics  and  who  can  make  them  so  interest- 
ing that  she  can  compete  with  the  dance  hall  and  other 
places  frequented  by  those  in  search  of  recreation. 

Learn  the  need  and  shape  the  physical  education 
department  to  meet  it,  instead  of  planning  a  scheme 
of  work  and  trying  to  make  girls  fit  into  it. 

Make  the  fees  so  low  that  they  will  not  be  pro- 
hibitory. 

Make  some  use  of  the  gymnasium  during  Sunday. 
Girls  who  work  six  days  a  week  must  be  appealed  to  by 
some  real  relaxation  from  the  work  of  the  week.  The 
dance  hall,  the  picnic,  the  excursion  all  run  on  this 
day.  Why  not  be  practical  Christians  and  under- 
stand the  methods  of  business  competitors  and 
counteract  them  at  every  vulnerable  spot.'' 

Emphasize  the  social  features.  Encourage  teas 
and  banquets  and  dinners  and  social  gatherings  in 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        137 

the  gymnasium,  given  by  the  different  classes  to 
each  other  and  to  their  friends.  Exhibitions  and 
contests  between  classes  can  be  made  into  attract- 
ive social  functions.  Much  or  all  of  this  is  now 
lacking. 

Make  a  special  effort  to  reach  the  working  girl  who 
receives  a  low  wage  and  who  lives  in  a  boarding  house 
amid  bad  surroundings  and  without  home  ties,  and  do 
not  have  so  much  red  tape  that  she  cannot  or  does  not 
want  to  come  in. 

We  earnestly  urge  that  associations  make  an  effort 
to  reach  immigrant  girls  whose  energy  needs  guid- 
ance, but  who  by  reason  of  the  difficulties  of  language 
and  a  different  standard  of  living  are  not  able  to 
choose  their  work  or  recreation  wisely.  A  gymnasium 
(which  may  be  one  large  room),  with  classes  in  Eng- 
lish, is  enough  of  a  plant  to  start  in  a  neighborhood 
where  they  live. 

A  further  need  is  the  establishment  of  a  school  for 
the  training  of  workers,  of  which  physical  education 
should  be  an  important  department.  Courses  in 
physical  training  schools  are  not  enough,  although 
they  are  a  fair  beginning.  There  should  be  an  his- 
torical, cultural  and  religious  background  which  ex- 
isting physical  education  schools  necessarily  lack. 
Such  a  training  school,  on  the  plan  of  schools  of 
philanthropy  and  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  training  schools, 
could  well  be  patronized  by  those  desiring  to  go  into 
other  institutions  to  teach. 


138  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

WELFARE  WORK  FOR  EMPLOYEES 

One  of  the  most  important  phases  of  welfare  work 
supported  by  employers  is  the  gymnasium.  Many  of 
the  large  factories  and  shops  have  them  for  men,  and 
in  some  few  instances  their  use  is  shared  by  women 
employees.  As  a  rule  welfare  work  for  women  has  not 
included  physical  training,  and  welfare  secretaries 
have  not  much  knowledge  of  athletics.  But  the 
tendency  is  strong  in  that  direction  and  the  demand 
is  already  making  itself  felt.  There  are  gymnastic 
classes  on  roofs,  in  basements  and  lofts  and  other 
rooms  of  the  factory  during  the  noon  hour  and  in  the 
evening  after  work,  and  young  women  from  neighbor- 
ing colleges  who  have  had  physical  training  are  in 
demand  as  teachers.  While  it  is  not  possible  to  play 
highly  organized  games  like  hockey  and  baseball  in 
the  small  areas  at  the  disposal  of  the  company,  bas- 
ketball and  minor  games  of  ball  are  being  added  to 
the  attractions.  In  one  laundry,  part  of  the  noon 
hour  is  devoted  by  some  of  the  employees  to  reading 
while  others  play  basketball.  The  irregularity  of 
laundry  work,  the  long  and  short  shifts,  the  night 
work  and  waits  render  it  possible  to  make  considerable 
use  of  games  if  only  the  space  is  provided.  On  the 
roof  of  another  company's  building,  gymnastics  and 
handball  are  popular;  while  on  a  third  such  simple 
games  as  tag,  throwing  the  ball,  etc.,  are  permitted. 
One  firm  gives  the  use  of  its  well-equipped  gymnasium 
to  women  one  afternoon  each  week  from  4:30  to  7. 
Considering  that  they  employ  about  1,800  women  this 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        139 

is  a  short  time.  Unfortunately  no  instructor  is  pro- 
vided and  the  work  is  disorganized.  Another  com- 
pany provides  a  gymnasium,  tennis  court  and  athletic 
field  and  has  an  instructor  in  charge.  Another  has  a 
roof  garden  where  handball  is  played,  and  one  end  is 
set  aside  for  game  tables. 

Some  of  the  roofs  are  so  arranged  that  minor  games 
of  ball  can  be  played  and  varied  with  dancing  and 
gymnastic  games.  Many  industries  have  available 
rooms  which  can  be  used.  Some  of  the  department 
stores  have  already  utilized  the  top  floors  and  vacant 
rooms  of  their  buildings  for  gymnastics  and  athletics, 
and  even  employ  teachers. 

The  use  of  gymnasia,  roofs,  etc.,  during  the  noon 
hour  keeps  the  girls  off  the  streets  and  gives  them  a 
wholesome  interest  as  a  substitute  for  gossip.  Break- 
ing the  long  five-hour  period  with  a  half -hour  of  exer- 
cise or  rest  would  be  a  gain  rather  than  a  loss  to  the 
company.  One  company  requires  that  some  of  its 
employees  shall  have  gymnastics  while  standing  by 
their  chairs,  as  school  children  relax  by  their  desks. 

Some  employers  who  have  no  facilities  in  their  own 
plants  have  set  a  good  example  by  obtaining  accom- 
modations elsewhere.  One  English  firm  provides  ten- 
nis and  cricket  courts,  a  large  covered  ground  and  a 
special  gymnasium.  Unless  prohibited  by  the  doctor, 
all  girls  under  fifteen  attend  two  classes  weekly  during 
•work  hours.  A  committee  of  girls  entirely  controls 
the  athletic  club  which  organizes  all  of  the  games, 
including  basketball.  It  has  also  a  swimming  tank 
and  shower  and  vapor  baths  under  its  charge. 


140  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

Every  welfare  secretary,  whether  in  direct  charge 
of  the  work  or  employing  specialists,  needs  to  know 
the  value  of  physical  training  and  to  urge  organized 
play  among  employees. 

TRADES    UNIONS 

Combinations  of  working  people,  as  well  as  of  em- 
ployers, can  build  up  group  activity  by  recognizing 
the  socializing  value  of  organized  play.  The  woman 
who  works  in  the  trades  has  little  time  for  recreation, 
and  practically  none  for  education  through  games. 
The  problem  of  trades  unions  for  women  is  to  develop 
the  consciousness  of  a  common  cause.  This  may  be 
a  simple  matter  for  men  but  it  is  not  so  for  women. 
They  change  more  rapidly  from  one  occupation  to  an- 
other, regard  employment  as  a  means  to  an  end  and 
consider  first  whether  they  as  individuals  need  the 
union,  not  whether  the  movement  for  bettering  con- 
ditions needs  them.  Women's  trades  unions  have  an 
opportunity  open  to  no  other  organization  in  reaching 
working  women.  At  the  very  basis  of  their  struggle 
for  better  conditions,  higher  wages,  more  leisure  and 
better  citizenship  lies  the  necessity  for  team  work  and 
group  loyalty — two  things  which  games  are  pre- 
eminent in  developing.  This  may  seem  a  long  way 
around,  but  its  effectiveness  makes  it  a  factor  to  be 
considered.  For  this  reason,  these  organizations 
should  be  interested  not  only  in  forwarding  athletic 
movements  in  other  institutions,  but  a  gymnasium 
may  very  properly  be  made  the  nucleus  for  their  own 
work.      It   makes   a   good   place   for   meetings   and 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS       141 

social  gatherings,  can  be  used  by  the  children  for 
class  work  during  the  day,  while  its  evening  athletics 
may  be  the  direct  means  of  bringing  workers  together. 
Folk  dances  appeal  to  the  various  nationalities  and 
some  may  understand  the  purpose  of  the  union  better 
through  its  simple  appeal  to  their  love  of  their  home 
country  and  its  associations.  One  or  two  settlements 
have  understood  this  and  provided  athletic  classes  for 
various  local  unions.  The  need  of  recreation  as  well 
as  of  education  and  the  present  wretched  amusement 
facilities  for  working  girls  are  a  further  plea  for 
trades  unions  to  take  an  interest  in  games  as  a  means 
of  making  a  more  efficient  democracy. 

REFORMATORY  INSTITUTIONS 

Social  education  is  not  always  a  question  of  making 
citizens ;  it  is  frequently  the  problem  of  reclaiming 
them.  Tremendous  sums  and  huge  institutions  are 
required  for  this  purpose.  The  girl  who  needs  re- 
claiming has  usually  set  her  individual  right  above  the 
social  right  and  has  refused  to  do  "  team  "  work.  Al- 
though athletics  possess  such  possibilities  for  social 
education,  the  gymnasium  is  about  the  last  thing  one 
finds  in  reformatory  institutions.  Discipline  by  the 
rod  instead  of  by  teaching  self-control,  is  more  popu- 
lar. A  few  schools  and  homes  use  drills  and  simple 
gymnastic  exercises  as  a  matter  of  recreation  and 
health,  but  directed  play  is  rarely  found.  Some  let 
the  good  girls  play  in  the  yards,  but  without  super- 
vision. The  amount  of  play  time  is  proportionately 
small  and  young  girls  committed  to  institutions  enter 


142  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

upon  a  dull,  monotonous,  deadly  routine  which  turns 
out  a  machine,  which  without  its  operator  either 
runs  amuck  or  becomes  a  mere  automaton.  One 
superintendent  writes :  "  This  is  not  a  place  where 
girls  come  for  fun  and  to  have  a  good  time  but  to 
be  punished  for  their  misdeeds  and  to  learn  to  do 
right."  Fortunately  this  does  not  represent  the  atti- 
tude in  all  institutions. 

It  is  amazing  that  such  a  large  percentage — more 
than  three-quarters  of  the  institutions  studied — have 
neglected  physical  training  entirely,  abandoned  it,  or 
consider  it  unimportant.  The  physical  condition  of 
many  young  girls,  their  moral  obtuseness,  extreme 
individualism  and  mental  dulness  on  arrival  would 
lead  one  to  think  that  a  bright  sunny  gymnasium, 
with  corrective  and  preparatory  work  and  games, 
would  be  regarded  as  a  first  essential.  Disordered 
emotions,  pent-up  energy,  vicious  desires  and  habits 
and  distorted  view  of  life  can  often  be  understood 
and  corrected  in  the  gymnasium  when  the  schoolroom 
is  a  failure. 

It  is  also  curious  that  many  probation  officers  so 
ignore  the  value  of  organized  play.  The  probation 
officer  for  boys  puts  them  in  settlement  gymnasia, 
takes  them  off  to  camps  or  goes  to  vacant  lots  and 
plays  with  them.  But  the  girl  is  frequently  returned 
to  the  same  district,  same  home,  same  everything,  with 
no  change  in  the  outlet  for  her  emotions,  with  no 
effort  to  reclaim  her  as  a  social  being — and  then  it  is 
said :  "  When  a  girl  goes  down  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  save  her."     Wise  probation  officers  who  have  put 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        143 

their  wards  into  playgrounds  and  settlements  and  en- 
deavored to  develop  the  sterner  qualities,  tell  a  dif- 
ferent story  and  one  fraught  with  great  public  in- 
terest. 

It  is  truly  astounding  that  so  many  institutions, 
which  have  reformation  for  their  object,  do  not 
recognize  that  a  person  without  self-control  is  not  a 
good  or  safe  member  of  society  and  that  where  there 
is  no  freedom  there  can  be  no  self-reliance.  These 
institutions  by  their  discipline  shackle  the  mind  and 
body,  govern  the  girl  by  fear  and  force,  leave  her  no 
power  of  choice  and  then  expect  self-control.  The 
game  gives  freedom  and  opportunity  for  choice,  and 
if  players  are  insubordinate  at  first,  the  chance  is 
there  to  teach  the  girl  to  guide  herself  aright.  Once 
acquired  this  ability  will  continue  when  the  removal 
of  bolts  and  bars  opens  up  a  great  freedom  unac- 
companied by  means  of  control  other  than  that  exer- 
cised by  the  girl  herself. 

The  best  corroboration  of  the  value  and  need  of 
athletics  comes  from  some  of  the  reform  institutions 
themselves,  even  where  they  have  ilo  trained  teacher 
and  do  not  emphasize  the  social  and  educational  fea- 
tures of  games.  The  testimony  of  the  twenty-five  per 
cent,  who  believe  in  and  use  them  is  most  suggestive: 

"  We  have  a  gymnasium,  also  playgrounds  which  are 
used  by  girls.  We  have  in  all  312  girls  between  the 
ages  of  twelve  and  sixteen  years,  who  live  in  cottages 
averaging  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-four  each.  We 
have  eleven  classes,  each  of  which  meets  three  times  a 
week  during  the  winter  months  and  twice  a  week  during 
the  summer  months.     Through  the  winter  the  work  in 


144  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

the  gymnasium  consists  of  drills  with  apparatus  such  as 
wands,  dumb  bells,  Indian  clubs,  bar  bells,  etc.,  and 
heavy  work  as  on  bars,  jumping,  climbing,  etc.  This 
is  lightened  by  games  such  as  basketball,  Newcomb, 
center-ball,  shuffleboard,  ring-toss,  etc.  We  have  an 
instructor  for  our  work.  We  have  public  contests  in 
that  we  give  exhibitions.  Our  game  contests  are  among 
the  different  classes.    We  never  play  with  other  schools." 

"  The  results  obtained  from  games  are  very  valuable 
from  an  educational  and  ethical  standpoint.  When  we 
began  with  our  games  the  girls  were  wild,  selfish,  quar- 
relsome and  boisterous,  but  now  we  notice  a  great 
change.  They  are  gaining  self-control,  alertness, 
honesty,  endurance  and  a  strong  class  spirit.  They  are 
learning  to  play  through  a  game  without  losing  their 
tempers  or  taking  unfair  advantages  of  their  opponent." 

"  There  are  playgrounds  for  each  cottage  and  a 
general  baseball  field,  used  by  all  the  girls,  where  com- 
petitive games  between  the  groups  of  cottages  occur. 
There  are  gymnastic  classes  twice  each  week,  in  the 
winter,  for  each  of  the  seven  cottages.  The  recreation 
hours  of  each  day  are  spent  with  baseball,  basketball, 
tether-ball,  croquet,  tennis  and  dancing.  There  is  an 
average  of  twenty-five  girls  in  each  class  or  cottage — 
all  girls  supposed  to  have  some  part  in  the  games.  No 
contests  are  held  with  outside  teams,  although  visitors 
are  invited  to  witness  the  competitive  meets  between  the 
groups  of  players  within  the  institution.  The  educa- 
tional and  ethical  value  to  our  girls  is  most  apparent — 
in  the  unfoldment  of  their  better  natures  by  giving  them 
happiness — teaching  them  intuitively  to  enjoy  the  vigor- 
ous and  healthful  out-of-door  life — balancing  whatever 
nervous  tension  they  may  have  in  schoolroom,  sewing 
room  or  kitchen  by  a  sense  of  freedom  and  relaxation  in 
the  open  air." 

"  We  have  no  gymnasium  at  the  present  time  but 
have  the  plans  and  expect  to  erect  one  50  by  80 
floor  space  in  the  near  future.     We  have  a  large  play- 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        145 

ground  about  400  by  380  feet.  We  have  four  classes 
using  wands,  dumb-bells  and  Indian  clubs.  We  have 
three  basketball  teams;  some  of  the  girls  play  volley- 
ball, lawn  tennis,  tether-ball  and  croquet.  Our  basket- 
ball team  is  under  instruction  of  a  professional  trainer. 
We  thoroughly  believe  in  the  educational  value  of  games 
and  gymnastic  work.  I  do  not  think  it  injurious  to  a 
comparatively  weak  girl.  We  have  within  three  years 
had  no  ill  effects;  we  have  at  the  present  time  several 
girls  who  a  year  ago  were  comparatively  slow  in  their 
movements.  They  are  now  erect  and  better  all-around 
students  than  they  were  on  entering  the  institution." 

"  The  number  of  games  in  general  use  among  the  girls 
are  as  follows:  Baseball,  basketball,  lawn  tennis  and 
croquet.  The  various  games  and  clubs  are  under  the 
supervision  and  management  of  the  family  managers  and 
matrons,  and  under  the  instruction  of  the  Superintend- 
ent, who  has  had  practical  experience  in  nearly  all 
games,  especially  those  herein  mentioned.  We  fre- 
quently have  public  contests.  This  is  especially  true  of 
the  holidays.  Then  prizes  are  awarded  to  those  suc- 
cessful in  the  contests.  Regarding  the  educational  and 
ethical  value,  I  cannot  speak  too  highly.  The  girls 
look  forward  to  these  sports  and  contests  with  the 
greatest  expectation.  It  absorbs  all  their  time  and 
energies  while  on  the  playground;  it  helps  our  discipline 
a  hundred  fold ;  and  at  the  same  time,  gives  that  exercise 
that  all  girls  should  have,  and  it  is  done  in  a  manner 
that  does  not  require  coercion.  During  the  winter 
months  when  the  girls  are  largely  confined  to  the  indoor 
life,  we  have  similar  games  to  fill  up  the  long  hours  of 
the  winter  evenings  that  are  just  as  interesting  and  en- 
tertaining. We  also  indulge  in  a  great  many  entertain- 
ments ;  ninety-nine  per  cent,  of  these  are  given  by  the 
girls  themselves.  Would  say  in  reference  to  the  games 
during  the  summer,  that  we  have  four  families,  each  of 
which  have  two  baseball  clubs,  two  basketball  teams, 
one  tennis  club,  as  well  as  the  croquet  club.  I  per- 
sonally select  these  girls  at  the  beginning  of  the  season, 


146  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

keep  a  list  of  the  names,  select  the  captains  of  eacK 
club,  instruct  and  train  them,  and  require  them  to 
practise  just  as  religiously  as  they  eat  when  they  go  to 
the  table  and  sleep  when  they  go  to  bed,  and  consider  it 
just  as  necessary  and  obligatory  on  them  to  do  so  as  the 
foregoing.  While  there  may  be  isolated  cases  that 
would  demur,  yet,  a  little  common-sense,  practical  talk 
along  these  lines  by  way  of  explanations  regarding  the 
good  that  is  to  be  had  both  from  the  physiological  as 
well  as  the  psychological  and  ethical  point  of  view,  soon 
brings  them  to  easy  co-operation  with  us  in  carrying  out 
our  plans.  We  have  very  little  or  comparatively  no  dif- 
ficulty in  carrying  these  games  on,  especially  as  they  are 
interspersed  during  the  summer  by  public  contests  and 
awarding  of  prizes  such  as  named.  We  remove  all  the 
bars,  have  no  locked  doors,  no  incarceration,  no  bread 
and  water,  nothing  that  will  degrade  the  girl  or  detract 
from  her  pride  or  womanhood.  We  lay  it  largely,  if  not 
altogether,  to  the  methods  herein  resorted  to,  filling  the 
girl's  working  hours  with  a  healthful  and  reasonable 
amount  of  school  work  and  study  along  the  lines  of 
domestic  science  which,  of  course,  she  should  know; 
and  her  hours  of  recreation  with  the  methods  herein 
stated.  I  think  that  the  matter  of  discipline  will  adjust 
itself,  to  say  nothing  of  the  immense  value  of  the  exer- 
cise, sunshine,  fresh  air  that  she  will  derive.  Indeed,  it 
is  these  games  and  exercises  that  enable  us  to  get  good 
results  in  the  schoolroom,  in  the  kitchens,  dining  room 
and  laundry  and  dress-making  department  and  every 
vocation  that  they  are  engaged  in." 

No  testimony  could  be  stronger  than  the  last  letter, 
to  the  effect  that  social  morality  would  be  greatly 
strengthened  if  girls  could  have  athletic  training  be- 
fore they  return  from  these  institutions. 

One  reason  that  social  and  reformatory  institu- 
tions do  not  place  more  emphasis  upon  the  value  of 
athletic  training  and  use  it  as  an  agent  of  social 


ATHLETICS  IN  ORGANIZATIONS        147 

morality  is  that  the  schools  in  which  its  teachers  and 
officers  are  trained  almost  wholly  neglect  this  phase 
of  social  education.  Is  it  not  feasible  to  add  to  the 
courses  in  the  schools  of  philanthropy  such  additional 
ones  as  the  value  of  play ;  education  through  means  of 
games;  direction  of  playgrounds,  recreation  centers, 
etc.,  and  a  gymnasium  where  practical  floor  work 
and  gymnastics  and  games  can  be  taught  and  the 
right  social  spirit  developed.''  Settlements  and  other 
organized  social  movements  offer  ample  opportunity 
for  field  and  experimental  work,  if  the  preliminary 
and  fundamental  work  in  theory  be  provided.  The 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  schools  do  not  meet  the  need,  for  they 
train  especially  for  their  own  work,  and  can  barely 
supply  their  own  demand.  Moreover,  but  few  of  their 
graduates  teach  women.  The  demand  of  the  play- 
ground and  recreation  center  and  of  the  settlement 
alone,  to  say  nothing  of  that  of  welfare  work,  institu- 
tions, etc.,  would  seem  to  justify  some  such  extension 
of  work  on  the  part  of  schools  of  philanthropy,  or  the 
starting  of  special  schools  for  this  purpose. 

These  movements  indicate  something  of  the  use 
that  is  being  made  of  athletics  in  public  institutions. 
While  this  use  is  significant,  it  is  still  a  mere  begin- 
ning compared  with  its  possibilities.  One  difficulty  is 
that  women  do  not  stand  shoulder  to  shoulder  and  say 
intelligently,  definitely,  insistently  and  emphatically, 
"  We  want  and  need  this  thing."  We  believe  that  if 
women  really  set  about  demanding  group  honesty  and 
fair  play  among  women  and  the  training  necessary 
for  it,  they  would  get  it.    If  they  insisted  upon  civic 


148  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

virtue  as  they  do  upon  personal  virtue,  it  would  be 
forthcoming.  If  the  women  of  the  community  would 
get  together  and  do  team  work  instead  of  dissipat- 
ing energy  on  new  clubs,  or  even  if  they  would  just 
understand  the  great  necessity  and  be  sorry  a  little 
while  for  their  deficiencies  as  citizens,  the  problem 
of  the  need  6{  play  and  games  in  cities  would  be  far 
on  its  way  toward  solution. 


CHAPTER  VII 
COMPETITIVE  AND  PUBLIC  GAMES 

Much  of  the  objection  to  any  athletic  training  for 
girls  centers  about  the  fear  that  they  cannot  play 
games  without  entering  into  inter-scholastic  competi- 
tion. It  is  remarkable  that  the  amount  of  such  com- 
petition is  so  small,  compared  to  the  number  who  play. 
Less  than  one-fourth  of  the  colleges  and  private 
schools  play  inter-scholastic  contests.  In  public 
schools,  however,  where  there  is  no  school  control  the 
percentage  rises  to  seventy,  chiefly  basketball. 

Class  Contests. — It  has  not  been  found  desirable 
or  necessary  to  eliminate  class  contests,  and  fully 
ninety  per  cent,  of  the  institutions  admit  their  value. 
Many  reasons  for  the  retention  of  class  contests  exist : 

( 1 )  While  the  greatest  value  lies  in  the  dail}^  train- 
ing, match  games  played  under  the  intense  desire  to 
win  are  necessary  to  test  this  daily  training  in  order 
to  see  how  fundamental  it  is.  This  is  best  ascertained 
by  contests  under  the  control  of  the  instructor,  who 
can  thus  use  them  for  educational  purposes.  Rivalry 
may  run  as  high  in  an  inter-class  as  in  an  inter- 
scholastic  game,  so  the  test  and  training  are  equally 
good. 

(2)  Contests  of  some  kind  are  necessary  to  stimu- 

149 


150  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

late  a  group  spirit  and  to  increase  social  activities 
among  classes  and  institutions, 

(3)  Match  games  direct  the  attention  of  those  who 
are  not  players  or  especially  interested  to  this  branch 
of  the  work,  and  the  department  of  physical  educa- 
tion receives  recognition  where  otherwise  it  might  be 
neglected. 

(4)  Contests  strengthen  the  opportunity  and 
necessity  for  social  expression  through  athletic  asso- 
ciations, and  the  desirable  group  experience  of  stu- 
dent government  is  thus  made  possible. 

Disadvantages  of  Inter-Scholastic  Competition. — 
The  objections  to  public  inter-scholastic  contests  are 
for  the  most  part  well  taken,  although  there  is  a 
tendency  to  exaggerate  the  danger  in  institutions 
other  than  public  schools: 

(1)  The  physical  and  nervous  strain  upon  young 
girls  who  journey  from  school  to  school,  or  from 
town  to  town,  followed  by  a  hard  game  is  a  severe  one. 
It  is  also  difficult  under  these  conditions  properly  to 
supervise  and  safeguard  teams  and  accompanying 
enthusiasts. 

(2)  The  lack  of  uniform  rules  and  co-operation 
between  competing  organizations  and  the  emphasis 
laid  on  winning  prizes  tend  to  delay  placing  athletic 
instruction  upon  an  educational  basis,  lead  to  notori- 
ety and  invite  much  adverse  and  unfair  criticism. 

(3)  The  character  of  the  audiences  cannot  be  con- 
trolled where  the  contests  are  open  to  the  public 
upon  payment  of  an  entrance  fee. 

Some  of  the  instructors  in  schools  which  encour- 


COMPETITIVE  AND  PUBLIC  GAMES    151 

age  inter-scholastic  contests  speak  in  no  uncertain 
terms  of  their  effect: 

"  Few  girls  are  ready  to  play  outside  teams.  They 
lack  the  spirit  of  the  sport  and  need  to  be  trained  in  that 
more  than  in  the  liberal  construction  of  rules." 

"  We  are  advocating  the  abolition  of  the  high  school 
league.  Girls  take  things  so  seriously  and  the  members 
of  the  defeated  team  cannot  concentrate  on  studies  for 
several  days,  especially  where  prizes  are  offered." 

"  There  is  a  great  danger  of  sacrificing  some  of  the 
finer  traits  for  the  peculiar  boldness  which  outside  con- 
tests bring  out." 

One  instructor  writes  at  length  that  they  do  not 
encourage  contests  for  the  following  reasons : 

"  There  is  a  great  tendency  to  overdo  themselves 
physically,  which  cannot  be  controlled  as  they  play  on 
outside  teams. 

"  They  get  interested  in  their  game  and  spend  so  much 
time  at  it  that  they  neglect  their  studies. 

"  Their  behavior  generally  is  demoralizing  to  the 
school;  they  try  every  means  to  meet  in  the  library, 
halls  and  lavatory  and  talk  game,  of  course. 

"  They  very  often  go  insane  on  their  particular  game, 
and  do  not  care  for  any  all-around  work. 

"  A  team  always  consists  of  those  members  that  are 
naturally  strong  and  robust.  This  shuts  out  the  more 
needy,  who  are  anxious  to  use  the  gymnasium  for  op- 
tional practice  after  school. 

"  We  have  hundreds  who  would  like  to  use  the  gym- 
nasium but  are  unable  to  do  so  after  school  because  the 
ten  members  of  the  team  monopolize  it. 

"  This  training  to  professionalism  i^  to  be  condemned ; 
too  much  time  is  lost,  carting  around  the  country.  This 
race  for  the  championship  makes  it  a  too  strenuous  affair 


152  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

and  relations  become  strained.  The  losing  team  pick 
out  coaches,  teachers  or  umpires  as  targets. 

"  If  we  must  have  contests,  it  would  be  better  to  have 
them  among  the  pupils  of  the  school  among  the  different 
years. 

"  Our  girls  need  good  sound  all-around  work,  work 
suited  and  conducive  to  health,  etc." 


Under  present  conditions  we  believe  that  the  con- 
servative attitude  of  the  majority  of  the  institutions 
which  include  colleges,  private  schools  and  a  small 
percentage  of  high  schools,  is  the  best  for  the  future 
good  of  the  girls  and  of  athletics. 

Audiences — A  question  that  always  arises  in  con- 
nection with  contests  is  whether  they  shall  be  open 
to  the  general  public.  The  majority  favor  audiences 
which  are  selected  by  invitation  and  not  by  purchase 
ticket.  The  majority  also  favor  limiting  invitations 
to  men  who  are  members  of  the  girls'  families  or  of 
the  faculty.  Some  schools  issue  all  of  the  invitations 
to  men  in  the  name  of  the  school  and  carefully  super- 
vise the  list.  Unfortunately  in  the  high  and  normal 
schools,  with  a  few  exceptions,  no  such  care  is  taken, 
admission  being  by  purchase,  so  that  any  one  is  ad- 
mitted. As  a  result  many  boys  attend  and  by  their 
noise,  "  rooting "  and  roughness  discourage  class 
songs  and  cheers  by  the  girls.  The  class  and  institu- 
tional spirit  which  makes  games  so  attractive  may  be 
quite  lost  where  outside  persons,  who  have  no  particu- 
lar interest,  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  audience. 

At  the  present  time  there  seems  to  be  no  justifica- 
tion whatever  for  pay  games.     Dues  of  members  can 


COMPETITIVE  AND  PUBLIC  GAMES    153 

be  made  to  cover  ordinary  expenses,  and  the  schools 
should  provide  the  gymnasia  and  instructor.  Aboli- 
tion of  admission  fees  would  do  away  with  the  abuses 
due  to  too  many  contests  and  to  mixed  audiences. 

Prizes. — This  is  becoming  a  serious  matter  in 
high  school  contests.  There  is  a  tendency  to  reward 
teams  with  articles  of  value  instead  of  those  rich  in 
associations  and  inspiration,  such  as  attaches  to  the 
college  banner  or  cup  which  the  class  and  not  the 
team  alone  holds.  The  championship  desire  is  thus 
becoming  a  work  spirit  for  reward  rather  than  a  play 
spirit  for  the  game  itself. 

Essentials  of  a  Good,  Clean  Game. — The  general 
approval  of  inter-class  contests  narrows  our  problem 
to  the  best  way  in  which  they  can  be  made  educational 
and  successful.  There  are  at  least  three  indispen- 
sable essentials:  (1)  Good,  clean  playing.  (2)  A 
well-conducted  game,     (3)  An  Inspiring  audience. 

The  ability  to  play  a  good,  clean  contest  depends 
upon  the  standard  required  by  the  school  and  upon 
the  character  of  the  training.  Players  In  perfect 
physical  condition  are  a  delight.  With  gathered-up 
strength  and  a  fair  amount  of  muscle,  good  mind, 
elastic  step,  good  clear  skin  and  bright  eyes,  they  are 
In  good  spirits  and  good  humor  and  not  too  confident. 
Contrast  such  a  team  with  one  which  looks  dull, 
languid  and  listless,  with  slouching  demeanor,  a  sour 
or  bored  expression  and  a  take-it-for-granted  air! 
Every  one  knows  how  distressing  it  is  to  see  a  player 
collapse  and  be  taken  off  the  field  or  to  have  her  put 
out  of  the  game  because  of  "  poor  condition."     Such 


154  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

scenes  are  long  remembered  and  do  a  great  deal  of 
harm  to  the  cause  of  good  sport. 

The  appearance  of  the  team  has  much  to  do  with  a 
good,  clean  game.  If  the  color  and  style  of  the  suits 
is  uniform  and  they  are  simply  made  and  well  put  to- 
gether, the  hosiery  black,  and  the  hair  dressed  so  it 
will  not  cause  trouble  and  if  players  come  on  the  field 
in  an  orderly  way,  a  good  impression  is  made  at  the 
start.  Contrast  this  with  a  team  that  comes  on  the 
field  in  suits  and  hosiery  and  hair  ribbons  all  colors 
of  the  rainbow,  straggling  in  one  at  a  time,  some 
chewing  gum,  some  fixing  their  hair,  others  stopping 
to  talk  or  wrangling  with  each  other  over  positions, 
etc. !  Some  players  like  to  wear  jewelry,  which  not 
only  looks  out  of  place  but  frequently  causes  injury. 
During  one  contest  side  combs  were  picked  up  twenty- 
eight  times.  These  and  other  interferences  detract 
from  the  appearance  and  good  playing  of  the  team. 

Good,  clean  playing  depends  upon  another  thing 
as  important  as  fine  physical  condition,  and  that  is 
the  spirit  of  the  game.  A  good  spirit  is  shown  by 
such  things  as  the  following:  Allowing  each  team 
sufficient  time  to  warm  up;  absence  of  all  complaints 
"  that  the  other  team  has  had  more  preliminary  prac- 
tice " ;  greeting  of  the  teams  by  shaking  hands,  al- 
ways at  least  on  the  part  of  the  captains,  and  at  the 
close  of  the  game  by  the  winning  team  giving  the 
school  or  class  yell  or  song  of  the  defeated  team ;  by 
refraining  from  uncomplimentary  speech  and  action 
in  case  of  interference  or  accidents ;  by  accepting  de- 
feat without  grumbling,  complaining,  or  explaining 


COMPETITIVE  AND  PUBLIC  GAMES    155 

or  depreciating  one's  self  and  team;  by  accepting 
victory  modestly  and  not  using  it  to  anger  or  irritate 
the  defeated  team. 

To  obtain  such  a  spirit,  the  thirst  for  victory  must 
become  secondary  to  the  sense  of  joy  and  the  exhilara- 
tion of  play.  Grim  determination  to  win  and  irri- 
tability because  an  opponent  is  outplaying  her  in 
place  of  feeling  the  exhilaration  of  having  a  worthy 
antagonist,  charge  the  atmosphere  with  the  unmis- 
takable spirit  of  bad  sport.  The  thirst  for  victory 
tempts  a  player  to  unfair  and  dishonorable  acts,  to 
take  advantage  of  the  rules,  to  attempt  sly  violations 
of  the  rules  and  even  to  make  deliberate  fouls.  Un- 
fair acts  are  more  possible  here  than  elsewhere  be- 
cause, in  the  excitement  of  the  game  and  mass  of  play- 
ers, it  is  difficult  to  detect  the  unfairness.  But  whether 
called  or  not,  it  is  the  making  of  fouls  that  creates  the 
bad  spirit.  This  atmosphere  frequently  breaks  out 
in  personal  antagonism,  recrimination  and  anger  and 
then  a  good,  clean  game  is  no  longer  a  possibility. 

Essentials  of  a  Well-Conducted  Game. — The  sec- 
ond essential  to  a  successful  contest  is  a  well-conducted 
game.  This  depends  chiefly  upon  players  and  offi- 
cials. If  the  players  are  in  good  form  and  have  the 
right  spirit  and  the  officials  are  competent  and  fair, 
the  audience  will  also  be  orderly  and  well  conducted. 

Officials  are  necessarily  an  important  factor.  In 
all  of  the  institutions,  barring  high  schools,  with  few 
exceptions  women  act  as  the  officials.  On  the  whole, 
men  are  better  officials  at  the  present  time,  for  women 
have  received  no  special  training  and  a  good  player 


156  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

does  not  necessarily  make  a  good  official.  Women  are 
also  less  exact,  less  firm  and  less  businesslike  in  run- 
ning off  games. 

It  will  not  be  possible  to  have  good,  clean,  well- 
conducted  contests  unless  certain  conditions  are  main- 
tained during  practice.  These  may  be  summarized 
briefly:  Compulsory  gymnastics  for  every  girl  who 
plays  in  a  contest  and  limitation  of  the  number  of 
contests  to  an  average  of  three  per  season  (this  does 
not  include  practice  games  within  the  school);  aca- 
demic standing  above  sixty-five,  so  a  proper  balance 
between  athletics  and  study  may  be  maintained  and 
making  the  team  may  be  considered  an  honor;  form 
as  well  as  skill  and  good  spirit  as  the  basis  of  selection 
for  the  team ;  all  arrangements  for  contests,  rules, 
etc.,  under  the  direction  of  the  school  authorities. 

The  Audience. — Hitherto  very  little  attention  has 
been  paid  to  the  contribution  the  audience  makes  to 
the  game.  Much  can  be  made  of  this  in  institutional 
contests  in  a  way  not  possible  in  professional  games. 
It  is  of  the  first  importance  to  interest  the  audience. 
Too  many  teams  think  they  are  doing  the  audience  a 
favor  merely  to  admit  them,  then  they  put  up  a  poor 
game  which  many  cannot  understand.  It  is  a  good 
plan  for  pupils  to  seat  themselves  among  the  audience 
in  such  a  way  that  they  can  explain  the  game  and 
interest  the  spectators  in  it.  When  women  so  largely 
make  up  the  audience  this  is  most  necessary. 

A  good  visible  scoreboard,  designation  of  opposing 
teams  by  color  of  suits,  careful  announcement  of  fouls 
and  of  the  points  scored  so  the  audience  can  hear,  will 


COMPETITIVE  AND  PUBLIC  GAMES    157 

help  to  interest  it.  One  college  gives  a  two-minute 
talk  to  the  audience,  explaining  what  teams  are  play- 
ing, what  the  prize  is,  which  goal  belongs  to  each  team 
and  how  the  game  is  scored. 

The  second  need  is  to  please  the  audience.  The  use 
of  colors  and  other  decorations,  of  songs  and  musical 
cheers  and  of  demonstrations  of  class  spirit  is  espe- 
cially helpful  in  doing  this. 

The  officials  can  also  contribute  to  the  good  con- 
duct of  a  contest  by  keeping  the  audience  in  bounds, 
prohibiting  hissing  and  catcalls,  discourtesy  to  play- 
ers, and  by  starting  the  games  on  time  and  having 
them  played  without  unnecessary  interruptions.  It  is 
a  great  pleasure  for  an  audience  to  be  fresh  for  the 
game  instead  of  tired  out  with  a  long  wait.  On  one 
occasion  when  contests  had  just  been  introduced  in 
one  of  the  colleges,  about  half  the  audience  were  late, 
thinking  a  "  girls'  game  would  not  start  on  time." 
They  were  much  chagrined  and  wanted  the  first  half 
played  over. 

By  attention  to  these  details  the  school  gives  to  the 
audience  not  only  pleasure  but  a  deeper  interest  in 
games  and  creates  among  women  an  appreciation  of 
good,  clean  sport  while  it  also  lessens  the  skepticism 
with  which  men  regard  women's  activities — all  of  the 
utmost  value  to  the  development  of  a  good  standard 
of  athletics. 

Athletic  Organizations. — The  most  influential  fac- 
tor in  developing  these  essentials  of  contests  is  the 
athletic  association,  league  or  club.  These  organiza- 
tions are  of  two  kinds,  those  within  the  institution 


158  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

to  which  only  its  students  belong ;  and  inter-scholastic 
and  inter-collegiate  associations  to  which  the  teams 
or  pupils  of  the  various  schools  belong.  The  financial 
responsibility  assumed  by  some  of  them  and  the 
amount  of  social  activity  give  them  a  wide  influence. 
Complete  control  of  contests,  financial  responsibility 
for  them  and  absence  of  social  activities  tend  to  make 
them  commercial  organizations  and  to  destroy  their 
highest  usefulness,  by  making  contests,  awarding 
prizes  and  stimulating  competition  displace  all  other 
functions.^ 

Field  Days. — Of  growing  popularity  in  many  in- 
stitutions are  the  field  days.  Their  chief  importance 
is  the  social  opportunity  which  they  furnish  as  well  as 
the  development  of  the  esthetic  sense.  They  bring  to- 
gether not  only  the  students  and  faculty  but  friends 
of  the  school  or  college  and  of  the  girls.  The  records 
made  and  prizes  offered  are  of  comparatively  little 
value,  as  compared  with  this.  They  may  also  be  a 
means  of  education  and  enjoyment  to  the  audience  if 
the  athletic  association  is  active  and  efficient. 

When  field  days  were  first  introduced,  indoor  and 
outdoor  meets  were  the  type  most  popular.  The 
former  consisted  entirely  of  gymnastic  competitions, 
— ladder,  horse,  rope  climbing,  traveling  and  flying 
rings  and  other  apparatus,  contests ;  relay,  obstacle, 
club  and  other  races;  and  broad  and  high  jump, 
hurdles,  etc.  The  outdoor  meet  included  dashes,  shot 
put,  hurdles,  relay  races,  etc.  Basketball  has  now 
been  added  and  in  some  instances  hockey  and  baseball. 
*  For  description  of  Jissociations  and  their  influence,  see  p.  103  ff. 


COMPETITIVE  AND  PUBLIC  GAMES    159 

Field  days  leave  much  to  be  desired.  It  has  been 
difficult  to  interest  outside  audiences  of  women  who 
do  not  especially  enjoy  individual  contests,  for  at  the 
present  time  too  much  emphasis  is  placed  upon  indi- 
vidual events  and  not  enough  on  class  events  and  team 
play.  The  average  field  day  is  frequently  not  repre- 
sentative of  the  entire  department  and  is  lacking  in 
variety  and  beauty,  for  such  individual  events  as 
broad  jump  and  shot  put  do  not  possess  either  to  a 
marked  degree.  There  is  also  an  absence  of  fun  and 
exhilaration. 

The  ideal  field  day  could  with  advantage  substitute 
for  such  individual  events  as  shot  put,  hammer  throw, 
etc.,  which  are  tests  of  strength  and  for  which  records 
already  exist,  events  emphasizing  skill,  grace  and  the 
esthetic  features.  A  field  day  should  represent  the 
entire  work  of  the  physical  education  department. 
Gymnastics,  by  class  exhibitions,  marches,  Maypole 
or  folk  dances,  etc. ;  athletics,  by  team  and  class 
games  such  as  basketball,  hockey,  tennis,  etc. ;  and 
such  individual  contests  as  hurdles,  relay  races,  and 
short  dashes  as  may  be  needed  for  interest  and 
variety. 

The  following  outlines  of  field  days  show  how 
limited  some  of  these  still  are  and  also  indicate  the 
possibilities : 

School  A — Outdoor  meet — including  competitive 
games,  races  and  exhibition  of  gymnastics ;  basketball 
game  between  house  and  day  pupils  for  a  cup. 

School  B — Making  of  records  in  running,  jump- 
ing, etc. ;  basketball  game,  luncheon  out  of  doors, 


160  PRESENT  CONDITIONS 

basketball  dinner  in  the  evening,  presentation  of  cup 
by  the  athletic  association. 

School  C — Forty-yard  dash,  running  broad  jump, 
relay  race,  running  high  jump,  basketball  throw, 
gymnastics,  shot  put,  potato  race,  basketball  game, 
luncheon  out  of  doors. 

School  D — Military  drill,  figure  march,  track  and 
field  events  including  dashes,  hurdles,  shot  put,  broad 
and  high  jump  and  relay  races. 

The  following  rules  and  regulations  for  a  tourna- 
ment day  show  how  well  such  events  may  be  prepared : 

"  I.  In  order  for  a  class  to  compete  in  a  given  sport 
the  following  number  of  entries  must  have  been  received 
at  the  gymnasium  office  not  later  than  October  the 
seventh : 

1.  Basketball    12 

2.  Field  hockey 15 

3.  Tennis    6 

4.  Tether-ball     4 

"  No  class  shall  be  allowed  to  compete  if  before 
Tournament  Day  the  number  of  regularly  practising 
members  drop  below  the  above  requirements.  All  ap- 
plications must  be  qualified  by  the  Department  of  Physi- 
cal Training. 

"II.  A  cup  shall  be  awarded  to  the  class  winning  the 
greatest  number  of  points,  the  championship  value  of 
events  to  be  as  follows: 

1.  Basketball,   1st  place  7  points;  2d  place  5   points. 

2.  Field  hockey "  "      "  "  "  "  " 

3.  Tennis            "  "      3  "  "  "  3 

4.  Tether-baU     "  "      "  "  "  "  " 

"  The  cup  shall  not  be  the  property  of  any  one  class, 
but  shall   remain  permanently   in   the  gymnasium,  the 


COMPETITIVE  AND  PUBLIC  GAMES    161 

numerals  of  successive  winning  classes  to  be  inscribed 
upon  it. 

"  III.  Two  hours  of  practice  each  week  shall  be  re- 
quired of  every  one  entering  any  of  the  organized  sports. 
Failure  to  comply  with  this  rule  means  disqualification. 

"IV.  Every  member  of  a  class  team  shall  be  awarded 
her  class  numerals  and  the  initial  letter  of  the  sport  in 
which  they  were  won. 

"  Judgment  in  awarding  positions  on  the  various  class 
teams  shall  be  based  on  official  record  as  follows:  1. 
Health.  2.  Submission  to  discipline.  3.  Technical 
skill." 

Summary. — ^From  the  data  submitted  by  the  vari- 
ous schools  it  would  seem  that  the  matter  of  inter-class 
contests  in  the  colleges  and  most  of  the  private  schools 
is  an  important  element,  is  well  under  control  and  is 
exerting  considerable  influence  on  the  total  life  of  the 
school.  In  some  of  the  private  schools,  high  schools 
generally  and  political  and  social  institutions,  the 
problem  has  not  been  squarely  faced  and  many  dan- 
gers exist.  Recognition,  regulation  and  proportion 
are  far  more  necessary  at  this  stage  of  the  develop- 
ment of  athletics  than  is  suppression,  for  contests 
have  their  own  value  and  place  in  social  education  and 
the  tendency  is  to  increase  rather  than  diminish  this 
value. 


PART  III 
METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 


CHAPTER  VIII 

GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  GAMES  AND 
CONTESTS 

To  teach  games  so  as  to  develop  character  and 
social  spirit,  within  the  brief  time  at  command  and  so 
as  to  retain  the  play  interest,  is  the  real  problem  of 
the  instructor.  It  is  difficult  to  offer  satisfactory 
general  suggestions,  since  each  instructor  has  more 
or  less  "  her  own  way  of  teaching."  Nevertheless,  in 
games  used  for  educational  purposes  it  is  necessary 
that  attention  be  given  to  many  details  other  than 
mere  teaching  of  rules.  From  our  varied  experience 
and  that  of  co-workers  we  have  found  that  certain 
methods  have  been  most  effectual.  Our  suggestions 
are  the  result  of  constant  experiment,  different  meth- 
ods having  been  tried  with  different  groups  of  girls  in 
all  kinds  of  institutions  and  the  results  compared. 

Minor  Games — The  full  value  of  the  use  of  ath- 
letic games  for  educational  purposes  as  well  as  for 
recreation,  we  have  found  is  best  brought  out  by  the 
combined  use  of  the  highly  organized  games  with  what 
are  called  minor  athletic  games.  The  minor  games 
which  we  suggest  as  combinations  possess  a  high  de- 
gree of  team  work  and  have  a  strong  social  organiza- 
tion. In  schools  one  highly  organized  game  a  season, 
varied  with  one  or  more  minor  games,  is  a  good  plan. 

165 


166  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

The  minor  games  are  less  difficult  to  learn  and  are  not 
taken  so  seriously  as  are  the  more  highly  organized 
games,  so  they  quicken  the  interest  and  stimulate  the 
play  spirit.  They  can  frequently  be  played  in  a 
smaller  place  and  in  less  time.  A  baseball  practice  of 
less  than  an  hour  is  not  very  profitable  for  beginners 
and  not  satisfactory  to  players. 

Among  the  minor  games  used  successfully  in  com- 
bination with  basketball,  baseball  and  hockey  are 
polo — hand  polo,  wicket  polo  and  water  polo  all  being 
desirable;  volley-ball,  long-ball,  captain-ball,  pass- 
ball,  battle-ball,  center-ball  and  many  other  related 
games  of  ball. 

Lacrosse  ranks  more  with  hockey  and  highly  or- 
ganized games,  but  is  very  little  played  by  women. 
It  may  be  included  with  great  profit  where  the  out- 
door space  will  permit  but  is  not  possible  in  city 
spaces.  It  is  a  game  schools  should  consider  with 
more  favor. 

These  and  many  other  minor  games,  which  will 
occur  to  the  reader,  make  a  desirable  variation  with 
those  more  particularly  discussed  here. 

Instructors — Opinions  differ  as  to  the  prominence 
of  the  instructor  on  the  floor  or  field.  As  a  rule, 
players  do  better  work  and  develop  initiative,  self- 
reliance  and  other  qualities  more  rapidly  when  they 
are  not  dominated  by  her  presence  and  personality. 
Some  instructors  go  about  the  field  talking  constantly, 
commanding  here,  admonishing  there  or  attracting 
the  girls'  attention  by  calling  while  the  game  is  in 
progress.     This    distracts    players,    prevents    them 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  GAMES  167 

from  planning  plays  and  makes  them  dependent  and 
self-conscious.  The  instructor  should  be  the  least  con- 
spicuous person,  talking  in  a  low  conversational  tone 
to  a  player  while  the  ball  is  in  play  in  some  other  part 
of  the  field  or  stopping  the  game  and  calling  a  foul 
and  explaining  it.  Where  a  player's  faults  are  in 
violation  of  the  rules  or  cause  her  to  make  bad  plays, 
such  as  fumbling  the  ball,  inaccurate  throwing,  etc., 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  criticise  her  publicly  so  she  will 
learn  to  accept  criticism  with  good  spirit.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  she  has  mannerisms  or  faults  peculiar 
to  herself  and  not  likely  to  be  held  in  common  with 
other  players,  we  have  obtained  better  results  by  talk- 
ing to  her  alone  about  them.  It  is  one  thing  to  tell 
a  girl  before  others  that  she  fumbles  a  ball  and  quite 
another  that  she  is  selfish  or  cowardly.  The  other 
players  have  a  common  idea  of  fumbling  the  ball,  but 
do  not  necessarily  so  easily  or  impersonally  under- 
stand the  other  criticism.  It  is  possible  also  to  obtain 
impersonal  criticism  from  class  members.  One  in- 
structor required  all  class  members,  not  participating 
in  the  practice  game,  to  attend  and  at  the  next  prac- 
tice they  were  asked  to  criticise  one  bad  play  and  give 
the  reason  for  its  being  such,  irrespective  of  who  made 
it.  It  is  better  that  the  instructor  give  commenda- 
tion or  criticism  directly  to  players  than  to  others 
with  the  idea  of  having  them  repeat  it  to  the  players, 
a  process  through  which  much  is  frequently  lost  in 
both  spirit  and  accuracy. 

When  for  any  reason  the  game  lags,  the  instructor 
can  become  an  inspiration  by  getting  into  it  herself, 


168  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

for  players  are  always  ambitious  to  score  against 
her. 

It  is  unwise  to  permit  one  player  to  instruct  an- 
other, unless  at  the  instructor's  suggestion.  Even 
this  is  a  doubtful  exception,  as  players  like  to  feel 
that  they  are  doing  equally  well  and  such  a  method 
savors  of  criticism  rather  than  of  real  instruction. 

Do  not  permit  "  answering  back,"  and  insist  upon 
deference  to  decisions  even  if  they  are  wrong.  For 
this  reason  it  is  necessary  that  the  instructor  give  in- 
telligent, accurate  rulings  and  not  opinions. 

Players  should  recognize  each  other's  rights  and 
all  rights  should  be  equal.  Rights  of  weaker  players 
who  do  not  make  the  team  are  not  respected  when 
others  take  their  practice  hour  or  use  all  of  the  balls. 

"  I  can't  "  should  be  eliminated  early,  so  that  play- 
ers may  become  responsive.  The  instructor  should 
endeavor  to  have  a  girl  carry  out  her  instructions 
but  should  not  insist  upon  plays  which  it  is  impossible 
for  the  girl  to  make. 

An  unfair  or  mean  play  should  not  go  unnoticed  on 
the  field  unless  it  is  a  temperamental  matter  to  be 
dealt  with  individually.  Some  instructors  think  these 
tendencies  will  remedy  themselves,  but  other  players 
feel  the  injustice,  and  if  they  arc  not  corrected  there 
is  a  tendency  to  resort  to  similar  methods. 

Do  not  grant  requests  to  play  coveted  positions 
unless  it  is  a  "  fun  day."  Granting  such  requests 
destroys  discipline,  gives  rise  to  suspicions  of  par- 
tiality and  hampers  the  instructor.  This  tendency 
is  easily  cured  by  assigning  to  such  players  positions 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  GAMES  169 

they  least  like.  At  first  they  may  sulk  and  declare, 
"  I  won't  play,"  but  in  a  little  while  they  take  the 
advice  of  the  old  players :  "  Don't  ask  for  a  thing, 
just  work  for  it."  Trying  players  out  in  all  positions 
is  a  very  different  thing  from  letting  a  girl  play  the 
position  she  likes  even  when  it  is  not  the  one  in  which 
she  plays  best. 

Although  not  called  upon  to  explain  changes  in 
line-up  or  criticism  of  plays,  the  instructor  should 
always  be  ready  to  do  so,  as  it  keeps  a  good  spirit  to 
have  the  faith  and  expectations  of  the  players  justified. 
Nothing  is  more  detrimental  to  the  spirit  and  democ- 
racy of  games  than  the  superior  cock-sureness  of  the 
instructor  who,  when  asked  for  a  reason  for  things, 
says,  "  Because  /  ask  you  to  do  it,"  or,  "  because  / 
want  it  done  that  way."  This  attitude  does  not  edu- 
cate players.  One  instructor  in  a  school  of  physical 
education  called  players  out  because  they  dropped 
their  bats  after  a  hit.  He  insisted  that  they  carry 
them  with  them  to  first.  When  the  players  protested 
that  this  was  not  in  the  rules,  he  flew  into  a  rage,  and 
said  it  was  enough  that  he  said  so.  An  instructor 
who  cannot  discuss  and  explain  rules,  or  who  has  not 
a  rule  for  every  decision,  can  never  bring  out  char- 
acter through  games,  though  it  may  come  out  in  spite 
of  such  training. 

As  instruction  progresses,  persistent  faults  or  de- 
fects appear.  A  prescription  card  is  of  much  help 
when  the  instructor  is  sure  these  faults  are  character- 
istic. Such  a  card  may  be  given  to  each  player,  with 
the  request  that  she  make  a  special  effort  to  overcome 


170  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

the  faults  specified.  In  one  college,  when  the  plan 
was  first  tried  a  disaffection  immediately  appeared 
and  then  quite  as  suddenly  disappeared.  Afterward 
it  was  found  that  each  girl  thought  she  was  the  only 
one  selected  and  did  not  wish  the  others  to  know. 
When  it  was  understood  that  every  player  had  re- 
ceived a  card,  the  attitude  immediately  changed. 
Some  of  the  girls  posted  them  in  their  mirrors  as  a 
constant  reminder. 

The  following  is  a  typical  card  for  basketball : 

Name: 

Game: 

Physical:  Inaccuracy — throw  too  hard,  run  too  hard. 
Practise  jumping,  starts  and  circle  throwing. 

Mental:  Lack  of  attention;  reaction  too  slow;  bad 
judge  of  distances.  Practise  line  work;  catching  and 
throwing  ball  from  wherever  get  it. 

Social:  Co-operation  is  weak — practise  with  forward 
and  center.  Lacking  in  loyalty — refrain  from  laying 
the  blame  on  others  for  your  bad  plays.  Vanity — as 
shown  by  choice  of  positions.  Selfishness — sulk  when 
reprimanded  or  position  is  changed. 

Esthetic:  Stand  badly  while  waiting  for  ball;  squeal 
when  running;  clap  hands  and  call  names  to  attract 
player's  attention;  open  mouth  when  catching  balls. 

A  good  list  of  don'ts  for  instructors  to  keep  in 
mind  includes :  "  Don't  scold,  nag,  or  show  impatience ; 
don't  use  sarcasm  or  ridicule;  don't  compare  players 
with  each  other ;  don't  be  too  self-assertive  and  con- 
ceited; don't  make  promises;  don't  pass  judgment  too 
quickly;  don't  be  afraid  to  admit  yourself  in  the 
wrong;  don't  be  afraid  to  speak  out;  don't  teach 
plays  you  are  not  sure  of  yourself." 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  GAMES  171 

Instructors  as  Officials. — In  inter-scholastic  con- 
tests, instructors  of  the  contesting  teams  should  not 
officiate,  even  by  mutual  agreement.  It  is  almost  im- 
possible for  them  to  see  faults  equally  well  for  both 
teams  and  there  is  a  strong  temptation  to  "  even  up 
fouls  "  if  one  side  calls  more  than  the  other.  Even 
when  there  is  a  fair  spirit,  players  and  audience  have 
an  air  of  suspicion.  Where  inter-class  games  are 
played  the  danger  is  not  so  great,  as  both  teams  be- 
long to  the  same  instructor.  It  is  preferable,  how- 
ever, that  instructors  train  some  of  their  pupils  to 
act  as  officials.  They  are  thus  free  to  observe  the 
playing  and  observe  players  under  competitive  stress 
and  in  team  work. 

During  a  contest,  there  are  instructors  who 
"  coach "  on  the  side  lines,  give  tips,  direct  the 
play,  criticise  decisions,  are  much  in  evidence  and 
talk  about  the  teams  and  their  playing.  There 
are  no  strong  enough  words  of  criticism  for  such 
practices,  which  make  a  good  spirit  and  fair  play 
impossible. 

Never  as  instructor  or  official  is  it  wise  to  tell  a 
player  immediately  after  a  contest  that  she  is  re- 
sponsible for  winning  or  losing  a  game.  Disap- 
pointed and  inefficient  instructors  sometimes  seek  in 
this  way  to  lay  the  blame  on  the  team.  Furthermore, 
do  not  allow  other  members  of  the  team  to  tell  her  so. 
If  she  has  played  well  enough  to  make  the  team  and 
been  rightly  trained,  she  will  discover  it ;  if  not,  it  will 
take  more  time  and  coolness  to  explain  than  is  pos- 
sible at  such  a  time. 


172  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

Rules. — Thoroughly  know  the  game  and  teach  all 
that  is  known,  including  history  and  value  of  game, 
reasons  for  the  rules  and  their  changes,  etc. 

Line  up  a  class  in  athletics  at  attention,  as  is  done 
with  gymnastic  classes.  This  assures  full  attention 
and  an  opportunity  to  see  that  all  are  in  good  form. 
This  is  most  important  in  settlement  and  other  classes 
where  players  like  to  wear  jewelry,  high-heeled  shoes, 
etc.,  which  are  not  always  discovered  in  the  rush  of 
play.  A  two-  or  five-minute  quiz  on  rules,  with  the 
class  in  line,  is  a  good  practice. 

Classify  and  teach  rules  in  groups  of  similarity, 
giving  but  part  each  lesson.  Avoid  going  over  the 
whole  game  at  once.  It  is  easier  to  adjust  individ- 
uals and  teach  the  necessary  preliminaries  before 
the  excitement  of  play  begins,  if  players  work 
together  on  simpler  parts  of  the  game,  throwing, 
catching,  running,  sliding,  batting  up  and  catch- 
ing, etc. 

A  practical  division  of  playing  time  for  new  play- 
ers is  one  which  gradually  increases  the  playing  time 
and  shortens  the  preliminary  practice  and  rule  read- 
ing, as  players  gain  in  endurance  and  skill : 

10  minutes:   (Basketball,  throwing,  running,  passing, 
jumping. 

(Baseball,  throwing,  batting,  catching. 

(Hockey,  stick  positions  and  swings.) 
5     minutes:  Play. 

10  minutes:  Rest — rule  instruction  and  verbal  quiz. 
10  minutes:  Play. 
5     minutes:  Rest. 
5     minutes:  Game  for  points. 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  GAMES  173 

Managers. — An  easy  way  to  distinguish  between 
the  duties  of  manager  and  captain  is  to  remember 
that  the  manager  controls  or  arranges  all  details  off 
the  field,  while  the  captain  has  charge  of  the  team  and 
gives  all  instructions  on  the  field  during  the  game. 

The  main  qualifications  of  a  manager  are  execu- 
tive abihty,  mastery  of  details,  tact  and  a  genius  for 
getting  other  people  to  work.  Where  schedules  for 
games  are  arranged,  she  should  be  sufficiently  clear- 
headed to  always  protect  her  own  team  and  should 
be  one  whom  all  the  players  like. 

Her  duties  are  to  see  that  all  of  the  details  of  the 
game  are  arranged,  including  decorations,  programs, 
music,  cheers,  leaders,  ushers,  good  support  for  her 
team,  well-drilled  rooters  or  encouragers  and  that  en- 
thusiasm and  good  spirit  exist.  She  also  arranges 
schedules  of  games  and  is  responsible  for  the  good 
appearance  of  her  team.  She  selects  referees  and 
umpires,  and  the  scorer  and  time-keeper  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  referee. 

Captains — The  captain  should  have  personality 
and  self-control  and  not  irritate  the  players  with  her 
commands.  Her  duties  are  to  give  the  signals  and 
see  that  they  are  instantly  obeyed;  address  all  offi- 
cials ;  select  the  team  plays ;  change  players  and  posi- 
tions; get  the  best  out  of  the  players,  by  suggestion 
rather  than  by  criticism ;  hold  the  players  together 
in  team  work  and  steady  their  plays ;  and  work  out 
new  plays  and  carry  out  the  instructor's  orders.  The 
captain  has  charge  of  all  preliminaries  such  as  tossing 
for  goal  or  choice  of  field.     She  also  represents  the 


174  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

team  in  all  discussions,  arrangements  or  agreements 
when  the  game  is  in  progress. 

Officials. — In  the  games  under  discussion  officials 
include  umpires,  referees,  time-keepers,  scorers  and 
goal  tenders.  These  are  in  charge  of  the  game  from 
the  time  it  starts  until  the  final  score  is  announced. 
The  referee  is  the  superior  officer  and  is  primarily 
responsible  for  the  good  conduct  of  the  game.  The 
duties  of  umpires  are  primarily  to  call  fouls  or  put 
players  out.  It  is  essential  in  selecting  umpires  that 
they  be  persons  ( 1 )  who  will  not  become  so  much  in- 
terested in  the  game  that  they  will  forget  to  see  fouls ; 

(2)  who  will  be  strict  and  impartial  in  calling  fouls; 

(3)  who  will  call  fouls  clearly  and  indicate  their 
nature;  and  (4)  who  will  keep  their  tempers  and  not 
be  overbearing  in  making  their  decisions  understood. 

When  training  girls  to  become  officials  the  follow- 
ing are  among  the  qualifications  the  instructor  should 
seek  to  develop : 

(1)  Knowledge  of  rules  in  letter  and  spirit.  (2) 
Backbone  and  character.  (3)  Ability  to  interpret 
rules  and  enforce  decisions  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave 
the  team  and  audience  in  a  fair  frame  of  mind.  (4) 
Ability  to  convince  others  that  the  decisions  are  fair. 
(5)  Ability  to  control  the  audience  as  well  as  the 
players.  (6)  Kindness,  courtesy,  dignity  and  a  busi- 
nesslike attitude. 

Having  these  qualifications,  the  duties  seem  clear: 

(1)  Stick  to  the  interpretation  of  a  rule  unless  it 
is  clearly  wrong.  (2)  Never  permit  argument. 
Listen  to  the  captain's  calling  of  a  foul  and  allow  or 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  GAMES  175 

refuse  to  allow  the  foul  promptly  and  proceed  to  play. 
Allow  no  one  but  the  captain  to  speak.  (3)  Never 
threaten  a  player  or  team.  Do  not  lose  temper  but 
persist  in  a  quiet,  dignified  way,  and  if  the  game  can- 
not proceed  in  an  ordinary  fair  way,  call  it  off.  (4) 
Never  permit  bullying  by  team  members  or  officials 
or  sulky  play  which  delays  the  game.  (5)  Demand 
instant  recognition  of  the  violation  of  a  rule.  (6) 
Abstain  from  fault-finding.  The  official's  business  is 
to  make  decisions,  not  to  lecture  players.  (7)  Be 
ready  to  explain  in  a  few  words  a  questioned  rule  and 
be  willing  to  produce  the  rule,  but  know  the  rules  well 
enough,  so  reference  need  not  be  made  to  them  when 
giving  decisions.  (8)  Be  impartial  in  decisions  and 
do  not  exceed  authority  or  make  it  obnoxious.  (9) 
Do  not  be  too  friendly  with  the  players.  (10)  When 
officiating  in  such  games  as  basketball  and  hockey  do 
not  stand  rooted  to  the  spot ;  follow  the  players,  so 
you  can  see  the  plays.  (11)  Do  not  get  interested  in 
the  game  but  follow  each  individual  play.  (12)  Do 
not  undertake  to  officiate  unless  there  is  a  thorough 
understanding  about  the  rules  under  which  the  teams 
are  to  play  and  unless  the  official  is  familiar  with 
them.  Patching  up  rules  and  differences,  so  the  game 
can  go  on  when  there  has  been  a  misunderstanding, 
leads  to  bad  feeling  and  inefficient  officials. 

The  scorer  is  not  generally  considered  of  much 
importance  and  is  seldom  trained  to  do  her  work  well. 
The  score  form  provided  for  the  various  games,  but 
so  often  ignored,  should  be  used  and  the  number  and 
nature  of  the  fouls  and  the  player  making  them  indi- 


176  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

cated.  This  helps  an  audience  to  understand  the 
game  and  is  a  valuable  record  for  the  instructor. 
Scorers  who  are  also  players  are  ordinarily  the  best. 
Keeping  a  baseball  score  is  so  complicated  that  it 
should  be  made  a  matter  of  careful  instruction. 
Scorers  should  also  know  how  to  work  out  percent- 
ages, averages,  etc.,  so  that  the  records  will  be  of 
interest  to  the  players  and  to  the  school. 

There  is  a  prevailing  belief  that  any  one  can  keep 
time,  and  that  a  variation  of  a  few  seconds  is  im- 
material. This  is  a  great  mistake  and  may  lead  to 
bad  feeling  and  charges  of  unfairness.  It  is  better 
for  a  timer  to  use  her  own  watch  or  a  stop-watch  which 
she  understands.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  invite  some 
one  who  is  interested  in  the  opposing  team  to  keep 
time  with  the  official  timer.  Only  the  latter's  decision 
is  accepted,  but  it  is  a  pleasant  little  courtesy  and 
holds  the  official  timer  up  to  the  mark.  The  farther 
removed  the  timer  is  from  the  audience,  the  more 
accurate  is  her  work.  Her  whistle  should  be  dis- 
tinguishable from  that  of  other  officials,  otherwise 
players  do  not  quickly  recognize  the  time  call. 

Timers  and  other  officials  should  work  in  harmony, 
lest  the  timer  "  extend  the  time  so  as  tq.  right  the  de- 
cisions of  a  distasteful  referee."  Timers  should  be 
honest  and  certainly  at  all  important  games  should 
be  experienced.  There  is  a  strong  temptation  to 
throw  the  game  or  even  up  the  score  when  one  side  is 
being  beaten,  by  adding  time.  Absolute  accuracy 
should  be  insisted  upon  and  small  errors  never  coun- 
tenanced or  excused.    Class  members  who  do  not  make 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  GAMES     177 

the  team  and  have  the  spirit  of  fair  play  may  well  be 
trained  to  become  timers. 

Field  Etiquette. — Select  competent,  impartial  of- 
ficials.    If  there  are  none  among  women,  train  some. 

Play  with  teams  that  abide  by  rules  and  play  a 
good,  clean  game.  Do  not  play  with  every  one  for 
the  sake  of  a  game.  If  a  mistake  is  made  do  not 
"  slug  back."  If  teams  that  play  a  clean  game  would 
consistently  refuse  to  compete  with  those  who  play 
''  dirty  ball,"  a  great  improvement  would  be  made. 
There  is  too  much  getting  even  at  the  expense  of  the 
sport  itself.  A  good  plan  is  to  watch  a  team  play 
before  challenging  it.  In  inter-class  games  these 
conditions  do  not  arise. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  each  contesting  team  go 
off  the  field  between  halves  and  rest  alone.  Do  not 
permit  talking  to  the  audience  or  to  the  other  team. 
Give  them  a  real  rest  during  which  time  the  instructor 
may  talk  to  them,  encouraging  or  shaking  up  the 
team. 

Numerous  protests  of  decisions  during  a  game  are 
bad  form.  In  the  nature  of  the  game  itself  every 
wrong  cannot  be  seen  and  righted.  When  an  official 
is  manifestly  incompetent  and  unfair,  do  not  have  her 
again.  The  great  desire  to  play  at  any  cost  permits 
the  toleration  of  poor  officials. 

The  attitude  of  rival  teams  on  the  field  should  be 
friendly  and  not  that  of  "  hated  rivals  "  until  one 
team  has  won,  when  it  so  often  changes  to  magnanim- 
ity on  one  hand  and  sullenness  on  the  other.  Teams 
that  are  not  friends  to  start  with  should  not  play. 


178  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

Extend  every  courtesy  in  the  way  of  quarters,  rest 
and  attention  and  avoid  hampering  a  team  by  giving 
it  poor  facilities.  Reserving  the  best  seats  for  the 
friends  of  visiting  teams,  and  other  similar  small 
courtesies,  add  much  to  good  spirit. 

We  are  confident  that  these  few,  among  many  sug- 
gestions that  might  be  made,  are  not  only  essential 
to  good  training  but  will  go  a  long  way  toward  pre- 
venting "  scenes  "  at  match  games,  bad  feeling  and 
bad  sportsmanship,  and  will  make  for  cleaner  playing 
and  a  group  interest  in  group  contests. 


CHAPTER  IX 

BASKETBALL 

VALUE  OF  THE  GAME 

Basketball,  as  compared  with  many  other  games, 
is  new,  having  been  invented  in  1891.  This  is  the 
most  popular  athletic  game  for  girls.  Nearly  every 
school  and  institution  having  any  facilities  now  has 
this  game,  and  there  are  also  many  independent 
clubs. 

There  are  three  recognized  sets  of  rules,  and  these 
have  so  many  variations  that  the  game  is  sometimes 
recognizable  chiefly  by  the  ball.  These  are  Spald- 
ing's Rules  for  Men,  called  the  Official  Basketball 
Guide ;  the  Intercollegiate  Rules,  used  chiefly  by  men ; 
and  Spalding's  Rules  for  Women,  adopted  in  1899 
and  used  by  a  number  of  secondary  schools  and 
colleges. 

Comparison  of  Rules. — In  Rules  for  Women,  the 
field  is  divided  into  three  equal  parts.  Forwards  and 
guards  must  remain  in  the  end  sections,  and  centers 
in  the  middle  section.  It  is  a  foul  to  cross  these 
lines.  This  necessitates  additional  officials  called 
linesmen.  The  maximum  field  contains  6000  square 
feet.  As  many  as  nine  may  play  on  a  side.  The 
time  of  the  halves  is  fifteen  minutes.  Dribbling  is 
defined  as  bouncing  or  touching  the  ball  more  than 

179 


180  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

three  times  in  succession  after  it  has  been  caught  with 
both  hands,  unless  it  is  touched  by  some  other  player. 
Unquestionably  the  most  important  regulations  are 
that  two  hands  on  the  ball  are  necessary  to  secure  it ; 
the  ball  may  not  be  batted  or  snatched  or  taken 
away  from  any  player's  hands ;  no  guarding  may  be 
done  over  the  body  of  an  opponent  who  has  the  ball ; 
and  the  ball  may  not  be  held  longer  than  three 
seconds. 

In  Rules  for  Men  there  are  no  lines,  the  men  play- 
ing wherever  there  is  an  opportunity.  The  maximum 
field  is  4000  square  feet.  The  number  of  players  on 
a  side  is  limited  to  five.  Any  one  may  throw  for  goal. 
Dribbling  is  defined  as  a  play  in  which  the  player 
advances  more  than  two  steps  while  throwing,  rolling 
or  bouncing  the  ball  against  one  or  both  hands  one  or 
more  times  without  the  assistance  of  another  player. 
The  ball  may  be  batted  or  snatched  from  another 
player's  hands,  but  not  more  than  one  player  from 
each  side  may  tackle  the  ball  at  the  same  time,  if  a 
player  from  the  opposite  side  is  also  tackling  it. 
There  is  no  limit  to  the  time  a  ball  may  be  held. 

The  introduction  of  lines  and  the  adoption  of  a 
non-interference  game  (by  prohibiting  snatching  the 
ball  and  close  guarding)  are  the  essential  differences 
between  the  two  sets  of  rules,  which  have  provoked 
discussion  and  materially  changed  the  game.  The 
alleged  advantages  of  the  other  changes  do  not  ap- 
pear to  be  of  suflScient  importance  to  justify  their 
discussion. 

It    is    claimed    that    these    two    changes    prevent 


BASKETBALL  181 

fatigue,  roughness  and  injury,  lessen  personal  contact 
and  further  team  work.  Are  such  claims  justified  by 
the  conditions  ?  A  typical  statement  of  the  advocates 
of  Rules  for  Women  is  this : 

"  Under  men's  rules  our  girls  were  not  successful. 
They  became  exhausted  before  time  was  called,  due  to 
the  excitement  of  the  game,  but  as  well  to  loss  of  energy 
owing  to  confused  and  purposeless  movements,  a  char- 
acteristic of  the  schoolgirl  age."  Or,  "  Since  each 
player  is  limited  to  a  certain  territory,  severe  strain  is 
alleviated." 

The  Rule  of  Lineball. — ^Let  us  take,  first,  the  use 
of  lines.  The  average  basketball  court  does  not  ex- 
ceed 2000  square  feet.  In  some  favored  institutions, 
like  colleges  and  private  schools  where  there  are  out- 
of-door  courts,  they  are  larger,  but  the  majority  of 
girls  play  in  public  schools,  city  gymnasia  and  in  city 
private  schools.  There  are  many  courts  having  less 
than  1200  square  feet.  According  to  Rules  for 
Women,  this  is  divided  into  equal  blocks,  and  in  this 
small  area  three  girls  are  expected  to  remain  and 
play! 

But  were  the  area  three  times  as  great,  we  believe 
that  the  use  of  lines  has  been  advocated  under  a  mis- 
understanding of  the  possibilities  of  the  unlimited 
field.  "  Lineball  "  has  really  been  created  to  meet  the 
defects  of  supervision  and  of  training  rather  than  the 
defects  of  the  game  itself,  and  at  a  great  educational 
cost — that  of  highly  organized  team  work. 

At  one  university  where  supervision  and  training 
are  of  a  high  standard,  an  annual  average  of  one 


182  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

hundred  girls  have  played  the  game  by  Rules  for 
Men  for  the  past  nine  years,  and  during  that  time  not 
one  serious  accident,  not  one  broken  bone,  and  not 
one  collapse  from  overplaying  have  resulted.  It  has 
also  been  used  in  various  settlement  classes  with  the 
same  good  results,  but  always  under  careful  direc- 
tion and  supervision.  Rough  play  has  been  almost 
entirely  eliminated,  so  much  so  that  the  fouls,  though 
carefully  called  for  this,  average  about  four  per 
game  during  contests.  In  other  institutions  where 
much  attention  was  given  to  education  and  team  work, 
guards  and  forwards  rarely  crossed  the  center  line, 
except  when  making  a  five-girl  team  play,  or  in  an 
emergency,  simply  because  it  was  bad  playing.  Line- 
ball  increases  the  number  of  fouls.  We  have  seen  as 
many  as  twenty  fouls  called  for  crossing  the  lines,  so 
that  the  game  was  made  up  chiefly  of  fouls.  Some 
players  are  willing  to  commit  a  foul  to  which  no 
odium  attaches,  like  crossing  the  line,  in  order  to  have 
the  ball  go  up  in  the  center  if  their  side  has  a  superior 
center,  rather  than  have  a  good  forward  keep  the 
ball  at  the  other  end. 

These  good  results  have  been  brought  about  by 
training  the  girls  to  play  their  own  positions  and  of 
their  own  volition  to  stay  where  they  can  play  or 
protect  their  goals ;  not  because  they  cannot  go  down 
the  field,  but  because  it  is  bad  team  work.  Of  course 
they  do  not  do  this  at  first,  but  it  is  made  a  part  of 
their  training.  Inhibition  is  invaluable  as  an  ele- 
ment of  team  work  as  compared  with  prohibition. 

Nothing  can  be  more  harmful  than  to  have  players 


BASKETBALL  183 

straining  across  lines  in  every  conceivable  position, 
trying  to  maintain  their  balance,  without  committing 
a  foul.  This  is  an  unnatural  expression,  without  joy 
or  exhilaration,  while  running  freely  for  a  ball  con- 
tains both.  One  player  says :  "  Nothing  tires  me  so 
much  as  the  strain  of  balancing  across  a  line."  An- 
other says :  "  I  am  exhausted  by  the  cramped-up 
quarters  and  nervous  expectancy."  Another  thing, 
when  players  give  so  much  attention  to  getting  as 
near  the  line  as  possible  without  going  over,  they  do 
not  follow  the  ball  or  game  and  play  "  ragged  ball." 
Where  lines  are  used,  the  placing  of  as  many  as  nine 
people  on  a  side,  as  sometimes  happens,  is  a  dis- 
advantage, for  they  are  often  only  in  the  way  of  each 
other  and  make  team  work  impossible. 

How  much  of  the  exhaustion  is  due  to  an  unre- 
stricted field  and  how  much  to  unscientific  training.'' 
Under  Rules  for  Women  do  players  better  direct  their 
energies  or  are  the  opportunities  for  its  expression 
simply  limited.''  Are  players  taught  enough  real 
team  work  to  equally  distribute  the  responsibility  or 
do  one  or  two  players  do  most  of  the  work.f*  These 
questions  are  not  so  easily  answered,  for  we  have  seen 
better  results  under  Rules  for  Men  than  under  those 
for  women,  and  vice  versa,  depending  on  many  things 
other  than  the  rules  used- 
There  is  an  erroneous  conception  of  what  consti- 
tutes team  work.  Simple  passing  of  the  ball,  irre- 
spective of  plan  or  method,  does  not,  in  our  judgment, 
constitute  team  work.  The  best  team  work,  under  all 
rules,  requires  guards  and  forwards  voluntarily  to 


184  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

play  near  their  ohti  goal  and  not  to  recklessly  follow 
the  ball,  leaving  their  own  territory  unprotected.  It 
is  just  as  possible  to  teach  this  under  one  set  of  rules 
as  under  another,  making  limitation  by  lines  unneces- 
sary. That  this  principle  of  good  playing  is  vio- 
lated so  much  under  Rules  for  Men  is  the  fault  of 
training  rather  than  of  rules.  In  order  to  win 
games,  beauty,  science  and  education  are  sacrificed 
and  the  players  resort  to  any  play  which  will  win. 
Massing  players  at  one  end,  combining  the  strength 
of  all  the  team  against  a  few,  getting  in  the  way,  etc., 
use  of  brute  force  rather  than  skill,  are  frequently  a 
part  of  the  tactics  taught  where  victory  is  the  only 
object. 

Instead  of  possessing  a  superior  advantage,  the 
greatest  disadvantage  of  Rules  for  Women  is  that  a 
high  order  of  team  work,  which  equalizes  strain  and 
trains  individuals  to  work  together,  is  impossible. 
"  Team  work  is  as  possible  under  women's  as  under 
men's  rules,"  say  its  advocates.  A  reference  to  the 
diagrams  on  pages  202  ff.  will  show  how  impossible 
three-  and  five-girl  plays,  on  a  mathematical  basis, 
are  with  lines.  Why  is  it  so  difficult  to  teach  girls 
indoor  baseball?  One  reason  is  that  the  order  of  team 
Mork  required  is  very  complex.  Why  do  one  or  two 
or  three  women  work  well  together,  but  when  increased 
to  a  small  group  they  fall  out.''  Because  the  team 
work  they  have  been  taught  is  very  elemental,  requir- 
ing few  adjustments  and  little  planning.  Two  for- 
wards, having  the  same  duties  and  tactics,  may  worlj 
well  together,  but  add  a  center  and  guard,  and  the 


BASKETBALL  185 

discriminative  and  associative  processes  are  much  in- 
creased. Many  of  the  three-girl  plays,  even  among 
three  forwards,  are  not  possible  owing  to  limited 
space  and  similarity  of  positions  which  give  little 
variety  in  tactics.  The  tendency  is  to  have  one  for- 
ward throw  most  of  the  goals,  and  all  the  others 
accept  the  simple  duty  of  "  feeding  "  her  the  ball. 
As  for  lessening  strain,  the  guard  or  center  may 
stand  a  few  feet  away  and  see  her  forward  strain- 
ing for  the  ball  and  be  powerless  to  co-operate,  al- 
though the  expenditure  of  energy  on  her  part  would 
be  much  less. 

In  addition  to  preventing  team  work  and  not  being 
adaptable  to  a  small  field,  "  lineball  "  has  other  disad- 
vantages. It  is  a  less  open  and  attractive  game. 
Short  passes,  aimless  passing  among  forwards  to  get 
rid  of  the  ball  and  dribbling  are  encouraged.  While 
more  persons  can  play,  they  frequently  do  little  more 
than  stand  around  in  each  other's  way.  This  was 
the  case  in  one  game  played  by  nine  on  a  side  on  a 
900-square-foot  court.  Add  to  this  number  an  ad- 
ditional linesman,  and  the  floor  is  pretty  full  and  the 
game  somewhat  confusing  to  an  audience.  In  play- 
ing without  lines,  the  apparent  disadvantage  of  ac- 
commodating a  smaller  number  can  be  met  in  prac- 
tice by  playing  ten  girls  and  then  have  ten  others 
play  while  the  first  ten  rest.  In  an  hour  and  twenty 
minutes,  forty  different  girls  can  be  played.  Eight- 
een persons  are  usually  too  many  for  the  average 
instructor  to  teach  at  one  time,  especially  young 
girls. 


186  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

The  Non-interference  Rule. — From  the  educa- 
tional and  esthetic  standpoints,  it  is  a  matter  of  won- 
der that  a  committee  on  rules  could  have  chosen  so 
detrimental  a  rule  as  lines  and  at  the  same  time  have 
selected  so  beneficent  a  one  as  prohibiting  snatching 
or  batting  the  ball  out  of  another's  hands, — a  rule 
which  makes  the  so-called  non-interference  game. 
This  is  designed  to  prevent  injury  and  rough  play, 
which  it  does,  and  it  also  accomplishes  part  of  the 
good  results  claimed  for  lines — ^namely,  preventing 
fatigue — for  it  makes  the  game  one  of  skill  rather 
than  of  strength.  In  the  nature  of  things  and  by 
comparison  with  other  games,  the  person  having  the 
ball  should  in  all  equity  be  permitted  to  play  it.  As 
a  matter  of  ethics  and  sportsmanship  this  rule  should 
be  universally  adopted  by  both  men  and  women.  A 
number  of  boys'  schools  have  prohibited  basketball 
because  of  the  interference  game,  for  a  great  part  of 
the  rough  play  and  bad  feeling  engendered  is  due  to 
it.  Officials  are  confused  and  lax  in  their  decisions 
because  of  it.  It  is  not  the  man  who  can  plan  to  get 
the  ball  first,  but  the  man  who  can  pull  it  away,  who 
wins.  With  the  adoption  of  a  non-interference  rule, 
we  believe  Spalding  Rules  for  Men  offer  the  greatest 
opportunities  for  both  men  and  women  for  developing 
character  and  the  mental,  moral  and  social  qualities 
so  essential  to  good  citizenship. 

Disadvantages  of  Rules  for  Women. — One  reason 
a  fair  test  of  both  sets  of  rules  has  not  been  made  is 
because  the  game  has  not  been  carefully  studied  under 
competent    supervision    and    instruction,    and   much 


BASKETBALL  187 

more  is  claimed  for  Rules  for  Women  than  can  be 
substantiated.  For  instance,  one  writer  says: 
*'  Women's  rules  make  the  game  one  of  enjoyment, 
for  the  girls  are  able  to  play  the  full  time,  and  there 
is  an  increased  number  anxious  to  play." 

First,  there  is  no  proof  whatever  that  the  game  is 
really  more  enjoyable  under  one  set  of  rules  than  an- 
other. From  such  testimony  as  we  have  gathered  from 
girls  who  have  played  under  both  sets  of  rules,  they 
favor  Rules  for  Men,  and  have  often  refused  to  play 
under  Rules  for  \Vomen.  On  the  whole,  it  is  the 
game  itself  and  not  one  set  of  rules  or  another  which 
attracts  them.  They  are  rather  indifferent  to  discus- 
sions of  rules,  for  they  simply  want  to  play. 

Second,  "  full  time  "  is  misleading.  It  is  our  ob- 
servation that  players  are  perfectly  willing  to  play 
shorter  halves  with  more  rests  in  between,  if  the  total 
practice  time  remains  the  same.  It  makes  not  the 
slightest  difference  if  it  is  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  so 
long  as  they  get  enough  work,  and  it  is  equal  for  all. 
Rules  for  Men  provide  that  by  agreement  the  time  of 
the  halves  may  be  changed  and  as  short  a  period  as  is 
desired  played. 

Although  the  movement  for  Rules  for  Women  has 
served  to  focus  attention  on  the  need  for  uniformity, 
their  adoption  has  really  established  a  dangerous 
precedent  and  complicated  the  situation.  There  are 
not  only  Spalding  Rules  for  Men,  Intercollegiate 
rules,  high  school  rules  and  protective  association 
rules,  but  in  addition  to  Rules  for  Women  there  are 
modified  Rules  for  Women  which  have  been  adopted 


188  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

by  certain  schools  and  called  by  the  school  name. 
There  is  also  "  basquette."  In  other  words,  any 
school  dissatisfied  with  the  rules  feels  at  liberty  to 
change  them,  a  situation  not  found  in  other  games. 

Where  competitive  games  are  played,  such  varia- 
tions in  rules  become  a  serious  matter.  The  first 
question  asked  by  teams  wishing  to  compete  is  "  What 
rules  are  used.''  "  In  many  instances  the  only  possi- 
ble compromise  is  to  play  one  half  of  the  game  by 
one  set  of  rules  and  the  other  half  by  another  set. 
This  makes  one  half  fair  to  each  side,  but  it  makes  the 
game  unscientific,  perplexing  and  distressing  to  an 
audience.  Furthermore,  the  disagreements  due  to 
such  an  arrangement  create  bad  feeling,  and  players 
invariably  attribute  their  defeat  to  them.  It  is  the 
worst  possible  practice  for  players  to  be  in  a  position 
to  blame  rules  for  bad  feeling  and  dirty  playing. 

Is  it  not  possible  in  conference  to  agree  upon  rules 
which  will  serve  the  purpose  of  both  education  and 
recreation  and  more  successfully  bring  about  a  uni- 
form game,  not  necessarily  a  woman's  game,  but  an 
educational,  sportsmanlike  game.'*  When  a  game  is 
widely  played  according  to  standard  rules,  the  rules 
should  be  changed  only  by  agreement,  based  upon 
wide  experience  and  needs — not  only  of  colleges,  but 
of  all  institutions  of  learning  and  of  civic  institutions. 
The  present  Rules  for  Women  have  taken  little  or  no 
cognizance  of  the  needs  of  settlements,  Y.  W.  C.  A., 
playgrounds,  roof  and  municipal  gymnasia,  etc., 
which  are  necessarily  small  and  present  a  different 
problem. 


BASKETBALL  189 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING   BASKETBALL 

Many  of  the  following  suggestions  will  seem  ele- 
mentary, and  to  many  doubtless  will  be  superfluous. 
Each  year  a  considerable  group  of  people,  without 
experience,  and  oftentimes  without  much  training, 
undertake  to  teach  this  game.  Aside  from  this,  many 
girls  play  it  without  instruction  and  do  not  know 
where  to  obtain  suggestions.  Every  rule  has  an  ob- 
ject and  serves  a  purpose  both  in  the  technique  of 
the  game  and  in  character  building.  It  is  in  the  hope 
that  these  suggestions  may  be  of  some  value  to  the 
groups  mentioned  and  will  simplify  instruction,  that 
they  are  given  at  what  may  seem  to  be  unnecessary 
length.  They  are  based  upon  Spalding's  Rules  for 
Men,  with  the  single  change  of  the  non-interfer- 
ence rule,  and  are  grouped  as  follows :  Require- 
ments for  the  game;  the  green  squad;  duties 
and  tactics  of  various  positions ;  rules  and  team 
work. 

Requirements  for  the  Game — The  physical  re- 
quirements are  a  sound  body,  good  heart  and  lungs 
and  endurance.  Anemic  girls  and  working  girls 
with  poorly  nourished  bodies  must  be  played  with 
great  care.  Basketball  almost  doubles  the  demand 
on  the  heart,  and  the  dangers  of  overwork  can  be 
diminished  if  the  condition  is  known.  The  game  is 
preferably  played  in  loose  gymnasium  suits  or  short 
skirts  and  in  gymnasium  shoes.  If  played  in  street 
garb  injuries  are  likely  to  result.  The  only  para- 
phernalia needed  are  a  sufficiently  large  level  spg,ce,  a 


190'  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

ball  and  two  baskets  and  some  paint  or  lime  to  mark 
off  a  court. 

Basketball  cannot  be  played  with  less  than  five  on  a 
side,  but  a  second  center  may  be  played  on  a  large 
floor  space.  There  are  two  forwards,  two  guards 
and  one  center.  The  two  forwards  play  at  one  end 
and  try  to  throw  the  ball  into  the  basket,  which  is 
ten  feet  from  the  floor.  The  guards  of  the  opposite 
team  play  at  this  same  end  against  the  forwards  and 
try  to  get  the  ball  and  send  it  to  the  opposite  end  to 
their  forwards,  or  try  to  prevent  the  forwards 
against  whom  they  play  from  scoring. 

The  Green  Squad. — A  group  of  small  boys  can  be 
put  on  the  floor,  given  a  few  simple  rules  and  the  game 
started.  This  is  not  a  successful  way  of  teaching 
girls.  Before  rules  can  be  given  and  positions  as- 
signed, they  need  to  learn  many  things.  Preliminary 
class  work  is  needed  to  relieve  shyness  and  awkward- 
ness and  to  stimulate  the  play  spirit.  The  first  thing 
is  to  teach  them  to  throw.  There  are  at  least  five 
advantageous  ways : 

The  ground  floor  ball  designed  to  avoid  tall,  long- 
armed  guards.  This  should  be  a  long,  hard  drive  to 
center,  or  a  quick,  snappy  ball  to  the  other  forward 
or  guard,  always  close  to  the  floor.  Avoid  having  the 
ball  hit  the  floor  at  an  angle  so  it  will  bounce. 

Side-arm  ball,  with  unbent  elbow  and  arm  swung 
laterally  to  the  body.  Use  all  the  back  muscles. 
The  object  is  to  deliver  the  ball  around  the  body  of 
an  opponent  when  she  has  her  arms  up  for  guarding 
overhead. 


BASKETBALL  191 

Overhead  balls,  with  two  hands  over  the  head,  start- 
ing the  ball  well  back.  This  is  effective  with  short 
opponents  and  in  throwing  goals.  By  jumping  ai 
little  in  delivering  the  ball  a  clean  throw  may  easily 
be  made. 

One-  or  two-hand  ball,  from  shoulder  to  chest. 
This  is  a  good  goal  throw,  and  may  be  used  over  the 
heads  of  short  opponents. 

Ball  passed  with  two  hands  around  back  of  the 
thrower's  body  from  right  to  left.  This  makes  a 
good  short  pass,  avoiding  an  opponent  very  cleverly, 
and  is  a  good  return  from  out  of  bounds. 

When  choosing  and  making  these  various  throws, 
teach  players  to  look  at  their  opponents  and  not 
where  they  intend  to  throw  the  ball.  For  instance, 
when  intending  to  throw  a  high  ball,  some  players 
roll  their  eyes  upward,  thus  giving  away  their  play. 

Each  instructor  should  make  a  special  effort  to 
have  players  make  as  many  different  throws  as  pos- 
sible. If  they  know  how  to  throw  only  one  way,  there 
is  little  variety  to  the  game.  The  one  throw  they 
know  is  usually  an  underhand  upward  ball  from  the 
lap,  which  is  slow  and  easily  blocked.  A  variety  of 
throws  develops  not  only  resourcefulness  but  discrim- 
ination and  judgment. 

They  are  now  ready  to  practise  long  and  short 
balls.  Long  balls  are  those  thrown  so  as  to  fall  back 
of  a  player  and  prevent  the  opponent  ahead  of  her 
from  getting  them.  Short  balls  fall  ahead,  so  as  to 
prevent  an  opponent  who  is  standing  behind  or  along- 
side   from    running    up    and    getting    them.     Each 


192  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

player  should  aim  to  give  the  advantage  to  her  own 
team.  Throwing  long  and  short  balls  necessitates 
good  judgment  and  precision  on  the  part  of  both 
thrower  and  catcher.  These  throws  can  be  taught 
to  classes  in  line. 

Line  up  the  class  and  have  one  person  at  the  other 
end  of  the  gymnasium.  When  she  throws  the  ball  to 
the  line  have  the  entire  line  run  forward  or  backward, 
according  to  the  way  the  ball  is  thrown — long  or 
short.  Throw  swift  balls  along  the  floor  and  have 
the  class  line  take  the  position  of  stopping  them. 
Have  it  get  under  way  quickly  by  practising  starts 
and  club  relay  races.  Throw  balls  sharply  to  the 
end  of  the  line  over  the  heads  of  the  players  into  the 
corner,  instructing  each  one  to  make  the  shortest  turn 
in  that  direction.  Some  will  turn  all  the  way  around 
in  place  of  the  correct  half-turn  before  they  start. 
Have  them  practise  running  the  length  of  the  field 
on  their  toes,  forward  and  backward,  speed  and  bal- 
ance being  the  objects  sought.  Throw  the  balls  high 
and  insist  upon  their  jumping  for  them  and  running 
up  to  meet  them.  Have  them  spin  about  on  one  foot 
without  making  progress,  and  throw  the  ball  from 
whatever  position  they  catch  it.  If  there  are  three 
or  four  balls,  large  classes  can  be  subdivided  into 
short  lines.  The  advantage  of  this  work  in  class 
lines  is  that  much  more  can  be  accomplished  with 
large  classes  in  a  short  time.  The  competitive  ele- 
ment leads  each  line  to  observe  the  other  and  stim- 
ulates it  to  do  its  best. 

In  addition  to  this  line  work,  a  necessary  exercise 


BASKETBALL  193 

is  throwing  and  catcliing  balls  before  beginning  to 
play.  One  cause  of  sprains  and  falls  is  that  green 
players  are  put  into  the  excitement  of  a  game  without 
knowing  how  to  run,  jump,  slide  or  otherwise  use 
their  bodies.  Green  players  have  to  get  used  to  them- 
selves in  action,  to  the  floor,  to  the  ball  and  to  each 
other  before  they  can  begin  to  play. 

We  have  not  emphasized  class  practice  in  dribbling 
or  bouncing  the  ball,  because  the  free,  open  throwing 
game  is  much  better  for  the  players,  and  is  much 
prettier. 

One  of  the  most  eff'ective  ways  of  teaching  guard 
work  is  to  line  the  players  up  in  a  double  line  facing 
each  other,  with  one  person  back  of  each  line,  to  throw 
the  balls.  Have  her  throw  the  ball  to  a  player  in 
the  line  facing  her  and  require  the  player  to  get  the 
ball  back  to  the  thrower  without  the  guards  blocking 
it.  The  guard  whose  back  is  to  the  instructor  does 
not  try  to  block  the  ball  until  the  forward  receives  it. 
This  is  to  teach  interference  when  the  forward  has 
the  ball.  In  this  way,  the  proper  use  of  the  hands 
and  body,  various  styles  of  throwing  and  of  blocking 
throws  can  be  taught. 

An  interesting  way  to  teach  accurate  goal  throw- 
ing is  to  line  up  the  players  in  two  rows — one  at  each 
goal.  At  a  given  signal  number  one  of  each  team 
throws  for  goal.  Immediately  after  throwing  she 
picks  up  the  ball,  tosses  it  to  number  two  and  runs 
back  to  the  end  of  the  line ;  number  two  does  the  same 
and  so  on,  until  all  have  thrown.  The  side  making 
the  largest  number  of  goals  in  a  given  time,  or  when 


194  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

its  line  is  used  up,  wins.  In  this  practice  insist 
upon  use  of  the  various  ways  of  throwing  and  dis- 
courage the  lap  throw,  which  is  only  good  on  a  foul. 

There  are  one  or  two  fouls  to  which  special  atten- 
tion should  be  called,  before  the  girls  begin  to  play. 
It  is  difficult  to  avoid  holding  and  catching  clothing 
because  of  the  loose,  baggy  suits,  and  special  training 
is  needed  to  avoid  such  plays.  It  is  difficult  to  detect 
elbowing — one  of  the  most  aggravating  fouls.  Play- 
ers should  be  taught  to  run  with  their  elbows  parallel 
with  their  bodies  and  not  out  at  right  angles.  Some 
instructors  even  permit  elbowing  as  a  means  of  "  keep- 
ing track  of  opponents."  While  not  a  foul,  falling, 
rolling  and  sliding  are  to  be  discouraged.  It  is  not 
only  poor  form,  but  injurious  and  prevents  good, 
clean  playing.  Instruction  in  jumping,  running  and 
throwing  will  do  much  toward  having  one  "  play 
up." 

While  this  preliminary  work  is  going  on,  in  the 
first  three  or  five  lessons,  depending  on  the  greenness 
of  the  material,  from  five  to  fifteen  minutes  may  be 
given  to  actual  play.  At  the  first  practice  there  can 
hardly  be  any  play  at  all;  at  the  second  ten  minutes, 
without  doing  more  with  the  rules  than  to  say  "  Do 
not  run  with  the  ball,"  or  "  Do  not  take  it  away  from 
another  " ;  at  the  third  increase  the  play  time  and  give 
more  rules.  In  the  meantime  have  each  player  read 
the  rules,  and  in  the  third  or  fourth  lesson  begin  sys- 
tematic teaching.  The  first  thing  is  to  explain  the 
field — not  only  the  lines  but  their  purpose.  Encour- 
age questions  and  give  quizzes,  for  they  help  to  make 


BASKETBALL  195 

an  intelligent  game  by  having  players  understand  the 
reasons  for  various  regulations.  For  instance,  if  they 
know  the  purpose  of  the  two-foot  circle,  it  is  easier 
to  observe  the  rule.  From  about  the  fifth  lesson  on, 
care  must  be  taken  to  teach  new  players  their  posi- 
tions. In  the  beginning  some  instructors  even  call 
fouls  to  teach  forwards  not  to  desert  their  goals  and 
centers  that  they  are  the  middle-raen.  When  once 
players  understand  this  and  do  it  as  a  result  of  their 
own  initiative,  the  result  is  a  really  beautiful  game. 
Beginning  with  the  fifth  or  seventh  lesson,  fouls 
should  be  called  strictly.  It  may  take  too  much  time 
to  have  each  one  thrown,  but  they  should  be  called 
and  explained. 

This  preliminary  work  is  not  a  trivial  matter.  In 
addition  to  its  educational  value,  it  makes  the  players 
familiar  with  the  atmosphere  of  the  game ;  it  arouses 
the  play  spirit  without  burdening  the  mind  too  much 
with  rules — a  thing  that  discourages  players  who 
have  but  little  interest  in  games ;  and  it  enables  the 
instructor  to  take  a  survey  of  the  material  and  un- 
derstand her  players. 

The  green  squad  is  now  ready  to  learn  something 
of  the  science  of  the  game. 

Forwards. — Forward  is  perhaps  the  most  impor- 
tant position.  As  a  rule,  she  sets  the  pace.  In  train- 
ing, if  there  are  some  who  need  slower  work  or  espe-* 
cial  attention  or  have  mental  or  physical  defects,  they 
had  better  be  tried  here  rather  than  on  the  active 
guard  line  or  in  the  responsible  center's  place.  This 
of  course  applies  to  preliminary  training — the  aim 


196  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

being  to  develop  all  players.  There  is  a  belief  that 
team  work  is  not  much  needed  by  forwards.  Groal 
throwing  should  be  tried  only  when  there  is  some 
chance  of  scoring,  and  that  chance  is  often  secured 
by  rapid  passes  which  confuse  the  guards.  Com- 
pletely subjugate  the  desire  of  a  forward  to  throw  for 
goal  under  any  and  all  conditions  by  explaining  that 
it  takes  little  head  work  to  cage  a  random  throw,  but 
it  does  takes  a  great  deal  to  get  the  ball  in  position 
to  be  caged.  This  develops  unselfishness  in  the  short- 
est time.  A  good  method  of  instruction  is  to  train 
one  forward  to  play  up  field  and  the  other  back;  in 
this  way  they  come  quickly  to  know  where  to  find  each 
other. 

A  difficult  thing  to  teach  forwards  is  to  follow  a 
ball  after  they  throw  for  goal  and  j  udge  by  its  speed 
and  direction  where  it  will  fall.  Green  forwards 
will  stand  as  if  in  a  trance,  waiting  to  see  what  hap- 
pens. Sometimes  when  a  ball  bounces  back  to  them 
they  are  too  dazed  to  get  it. 

In  free  throws  emphasize  the  underhand  throw. 
Its  advantages  are  that  the  thrower  can  control  the 
ball  and  is  better  able  to  judge  of  the  necessary 
amount  of  force.  Have  the  ball  held  in  the  same  way, 
lacing  same  way,  fingers  in  certain  positions  on  the 
seams,  etc.  At  least  two  or  three  forwards  in  each 
class  should  be  trained  to  throw  balls  on  fouls.  When 
there  is  the  regulation  screen,  caroming  the  ball 
should  receive  attention. 

Teach  forwards  to  make  short  passes  and  to  play 
to  each  other  and  to  their  center.     Few  girls  are 


BASKETBALL  197 

strong  enough  for  accurate  long-distance  throws. 
Skill  in  dodging  should  be  made  an  especial  part  of 
the  preliminary  training.  Give  forwards  all  of  the 
principles  of  guard  work.  This  is  often  neglected, 
as  many  forwards  only  throw  for  goal  and  do  not 
prevent  guards  from  getting  the  ball  to  the  other  end. 
Hold  forwards  responsible  for  inaccurate  throws,  thus 
making  it  clear  that  it  is  not  always  the  fault  of  a 
player  who  fails  to  catch  the  ball. 

Guards. — Guard  work  is  the  least  popular,  for 
they  have  most  of  the  drudgery  and  little  of  the 
credit.  A  goal  scored  by  any  one  counts  and  some 
encourage  guards  to  throw  for  goal,  which  makes  the 
game  more  complicated  and  increases  the  work  of  the 
guards.  Guard  work  develops  unselfishness  and  takes 
out  vanity  and  other  "  hindering  "  qualities  quicker 
than  does  any  other  position.  No  matter  how  many 
times  a  guard  successfully  blocks  a  ball,  every  goal 
scored  by  her  opponent  is  "  laid  up  against  her." 

Train  a  guard  to  get  the  ball  first;  next  to  block 
the  ball  or  spoil  the  aim ;  and  third,  to  jump  quickly. 
Guards,  unlike  forwards,  must  be  able  to  divine  a 
move,  and  to  closely  follow  the  plays.  The  best  posi- 
tion for  guards  on  the  toss-up  at  center  is  alongside 
the  forwards ;  not  in  front,  because  this  may  make 
the  forward  foul ;  and  not  behind,  because  it  is  a  dis- 
advantage. It  is  important  to  keep  another  player 
from  fouling. 

In  a  non-interference  game,  where  the  ball  cannot 
be  knocked  out  of  the  hands,  guards  may  wave  their 
arms  and  hands  to  spoil  the  aim  or  block  a  ball,  but 


198  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

cannot  hit  their  opponents.  Some  players  wave  their 
hands  rapidly  in  a  small  radius  close  to  the  eyes  of 
an  opponent,  to  prevent  her  seeing.  This  and  similar 
tricks  are  against  the  spirit  of  fair  play. 

Center. — In  all-around  team  work  the  center  has 
the  most  responsible  position,  requires  the  most  en- 
durance, and  height  counts  for  more  than  elsewhere 
since  she  may  jump  and  catch  ihe  ball  with  both 
hands  and  throw  it  or  bat  it.  Quickness  and  ability 
are  necessary  to  throw  goals,  but  more  emphasis 
should  be  placed  on  the  ability  to  do  team  work  than 
on  good  throwing.  Centers  require  all  of  the  skill  of 
forwards  and  all  of  the  tactics  of  guards.  The  cen- 
ter is  the  pivot  of  team  work  and  requires  the  finest 
kind  of  a  combination  of  qualities,  for  all  members  of 
the  team  rely  most  upon  her. 

Rules — Basketball  rules  need  simplification.  A 
good  classification,  which  may  be  posted  in  the  gymna- 
sium or  copies  distributed,  is  into  those  which  govern 
the  ball — those  which  govern  players,  and  general 
rules.  The  penalties  should  be  given  in  each  case.  An 
illustration  of  one  which  governs  the  ball  is — a  ball 
is  out  of  bounds  only  when  it  has  completely  crossed 
the  line ;  of  one  which  governs  the  player — there  shall 
be  no  shouldering,  kicking,  etc.,  or  rough  play ;  of  a 
general  rule  in  case  of  a  tie — the  referee  shall  then 
order  the  game  to  continue  until  each  side  has  made 
two  points.  When  these  rules,  and  especially  the  pen- 
alties, have  been  made  clear,  then  officials  and  their 
duties  and  classification  of  fouls  and  keeping  score 
may  be  taken  up. 


BASKETBALL  199 

Another  classification  based  on  penalties  may  be 
used  to  advantage :  ( 1 )  Fouls  which  give  free  throws ; 

(2)  violations  which  give  the  ball  to  the  other  side; 

(3)  violations  which  give  the  same  side  another  throw ; 

(4)  general  rules,  as  when  goals  count,  disqualifica- 
tions, etc.  Such  groups,  if  explained  together,  avoid 
much  confusion.  Giving  rules  in  sequence  and  using 
illustrations  are  helpful. 

Another  detailed  classification  for  teaching  rules 
is :  Fouls  on  the  ball ;  fouls  on  the  person ;  boundary 
rules ;  rules  for  giving  ball  to  the  other  side ;  rules  for 
returning  ball  to  the  same  player;  dead  balls;  scor- 
ing ;  rules  relating  to  officials ;  and  when  ball  is  thrown 
up  between  two  players. 

Team  Work. — Nothing  is  so  important  in  the  social 
education  of  the  individual  through  games  as  team 
work.  Its  absence  means  failure  to  develop  the  most 
important  moral  qualities.  When  a  group  of  people 
play  or  work  so  well  together  that  there  is  no  friction 
and  their  combined  activity,  with  all  its  variety,  re- 
sults as  accurately  as  though  one  person,  unimpeded, 
had  accomplished  it,  it  is  unmistakably  the  result  of 
real  team  work.  This  implies  on  the  part  of  each 
player  ability  to  use  her  body  accurately ;  a  knowl- 
edge of  each  other's  characteristics  and  style  of 
play ;  confidence  in  each  other ;  and  a  willingness  to 
adjust  herself.  Jealousy,  rivalry  and  distrust  are 
fatal  to  team  work.  More  than  anything  else  team 
work  develops  each  player  and  contributes  to  the 
beauty  of  the  game  from  the  spectator's  point  of 
view. 


200  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

There  are  at  least  five  things  for  which  an  in- 
structor should  work:  Coolness,  quickness,  accuracy, 
good  judgment  and  self-control.  The  essential  prin- 
ciple of  team  work  is  that  each  individual  must  be 
willing  to  sacrifice  her  chance  of  scoring  for  what  she 
believes  will  be  a  sure  throw  by  some  other  player. 
The  pivot  of  success  is  the  captain,  who  must  be  able 
to  control  herself  and  others,  and  who  will  discour- 
age star-playing  and  insist  upon  co-operation  at  all 
times. 

Quick,  continuous,  short,  unexpected  passes  and 
getting  rid  of  the  ball  quickly  are  the  physical  se- 
crets of  effective  team  work.  Some  believe  that  two- 
or  three-girl  plays  constitute  all  there  is  of  team 
work.  The  A.  A.  U.  rules  contain  this  suggestive 
comment  on  team  play: 

"  Be  sure  to  remember  these  points :  '  Get  out  of  your 
head  the  idea  that  your  first  thought  should  be  the 
basket  when  you  get  hold  of  the  ball.  Get  rid  of  the 
hall  quickly;  when  the  ball  is  coming  to  you  have  your 
eye  out  for  getting  rid  of  it  at  once  to  another  player; 
don't  wait  till  you  get  it  and  then  look  around;  bear  in 
mind  that  the  rules  have  been  formulated  by  students  of 
the  game  and  that  their  strictness  is  necessary  to  expert 
playing;  don't  think  that  the  number  of  goals  you  shoot 
indicates  your  value  to  your  team.  The  practice  of 
scoring  goals  to  the  credit  of  individual  players  ought 
to  be  abolished,  they  should  be  scored  only  in  total  to 
the  credit  of  the  whole  team.' " 

A  difficult  thing  to  impress  upon  players  is  to  get 
the  ball  on  the  run  and  to  pass  it  to  a  player  who  is 
making  progress  toward  her  goal.     This  frequently 


BASKETBALL  201 

gives  a  forward  the  chance  to  throw  for  goal  before 
her  guard  can  reach  her.  Girls  are  too  much  in- 
chned  to  wait  for  the  ball  to  come  to  them  and  then 
throw  it  to  some  one  who  is  standing  still. 

A  principle  to  be  taught  first,  last  and  always  is: 
When  any  opponent  has  the  ball,  never  get  away  from 
your  own  opponent.  Make  it  impossible  for  any  one 
on  the  opposing  team  to  receive  or  pass  the  ball.  This 
is  more  often  taught  guards  than  forwards,  but  it 
applies  to  every  player  equally.  There  are  no  excep- 
tions until  after  the  ball  is  thrown,  then  of  course  all 
make  ready  to  get  it. 

The  reverse  of  this  rule  is  equally  true  and  equally 
strong.  When  your  own  side  has  the  ball  make 
every  effort  to  get  away.  One  of  the  difficulties  is 
that  Instructors  do  not  insist  upon  these  rules,  so 
there  is  much  wild,  purposeless  playing.  Digressions 
are  allowed  because  occasionally  a  good  play  is  made 
by  violating  the  rule,  but  if  every  player  without  ex- 
ception stuck  to  this  principle,  some  serious  blunders 
would  be  avoided.  Some  players  never  do  any  think- 
ing or  playing  when  the  ball  Is  at  the  other  end  of 
the  field  and  are,  of  course,  never  ready.  When  the 
other  side  has  the  ball,  the  main  thing  Is  to  prevent  an 
opponent  from  getting  It  on  a  pass,  rather  than  to 
put  the  whole  energy  Into  getting  It  oneself. 

The  simplest  way  to  teach  team  work  is  to  begin 
in  groups  of  three,  using  the  triangle  as  the  basis. 
It  may  be  said  of  the  Illustrative  team  plays  which  fol- 
low that  they  cannot  be  carried  out  when  the  team 
Is  playing  against  opponents.     Our  repeated  experi- 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

inents  show  that  they  can  be  carried  out  even  in  inter- 
class  contests  where  both  teams  have  been  taught  the 
same  plays.  In  interscholastic  contests  the  opposing 
team,  not  knowing  the  formation  or  signals,  is  fre- 
quently so  confused  by  the  rapidity  and  peculiarity  of 
the  plays,  that  the  complicated  five-girl  plays  are 
quite  successful.  But  even  when  they  are  attempted 
and  fail,  the  advantages  of  training  remain.  It  is 
possible  in  a  limited  way  to  use  the  triangle  for  train- 
ing in  "  lineball,"  but  the  plays  can  rarely  be  made 
in  a  game.  The  three  forwards  do  little  more  than 
exchange  the  ball,  and  cannot  carry  out  a  definite 
plan  within  the  small  space  allotted  to  them.  They 
cannot  advance  far  enough  to  complete  a  play,  and 
it  is  not  possible  to  change  off  forwards  with  guards. 
The  following  series  in  the  order  of  their  progres- 
sion has  been  successfully  used.  There  are  many 
possible  variations  of  these,  but  the  following  will 
illustrate  the  method.  In  the  diagrams  the  solid 
lines  indicate  the  runner,  the  broken  arrows  the 
ball.  Af  By  C  ^  indicate  the  first 
play,  and  A,  B,  C  '  the  second. 


Three  players.  A,  B,  C^  are  lined 
up  about  ten  or  fifteen  feet  apart 
in  a  triangle.  A  throws  the  ball  to 
B  and  immediately  runs  straight 
across  to  X.  B  throws  the  ball  to  C,  who  throws  it 
to  A  in  her  new  place.  A  throws  it  to  B  and  runs 
back  to  her  former  place,  and  the  play  is  made  all 


BASKETBALL 


203 


over  again.  When  this  can  be  done  so  rapidly  that 
A  is  kept  running  constantly  in  order  to  get  to  her 
place  in  time  to  receive  the  ball  again,  the  play  is 
learned. 

II 

Line  up  players  as  in  I.  A^  throws  the  ball  to  B^ 
and  runs  as  before  to  X.  B^  throws  the  ball  to  C^, 
but  instead  of  standing  still  runs  across  a  little  to  one 
side  of  B^'s  place.  While  B^  is  running  towards 
C\  C^  has  thrown  the 

X\ 


W 


V^^ 


\  \ 
\  \ 
\  \ 
\ 
\ 


V 


\\ 


-C'\ 


B2. 


A^ 


'A2 


ball  to  ^^  at  ^  and  has 

started   for  B^'s  place. 

B^    and    C^    pass    each 

other  while  A^  has  the 

ball.     B^  will  arrive  in 

C^'s    place    in    time    to 

receive    the    ball    again 

from    A.      When    each 

player      has      changed 

places    once    they    are 

ready    for  the   second    play    indicated    as    (2).     A 

throws  the  ball  to  B^  and  runs  back  again  to  her 

first  place,  B^  throws  the  ball  to  C^  and  they  again 

exchange  places.     A  now  has  the  ball  and  the  play 

begins  all  over  again.     Every  one  should  be  in  the 

place  at  which  they  began  to  play,  if  no  error  has 

been  made.     They  stop  only  when  they  throw  the 

ball,  and  always  throw  before  starting  to  run  again. 

When   this  is  played   well  they  are  on   a   continual 

run  except  the  instant  they  throw.     The  ball  must 


204  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

be  thrown  high  enough  to  avoid  the  heads  of  the 
runners  and  accurately,  for  a  dropped  ball  stops  the 
whole  play. 

Ill 

Iri  the  preceding  play — each  player  ran  opposite 
to  her  place.  In  this  one  the  same  throws  are  made, 
but  the  thrower  runs  to  the  unoccupied  place.  The 
girls  call  this  practice  "  Pussy  wants  a  corner." 

It  consists  of  four  series  of  changes,  made  con- 
secutively. The  ball  must  be  started  as  indicated  or 
all  will  run  around  in  a  circle.  Two  things  must  be 
remembered :  A  always  throws  to  B  and  B  to  C  and  C 
back  to  ^.  If  this  order  is  changed,  a  mistake  has 
been  made.  Second,  each  player  immediately  after 
throwing  takes  the  unoccupied  space,  never  going 
straight  to  a  point  where 
another  player  stands  as  in 
No.  II. 

(1)  A  throws  to  B  and 
runs  as  before  to  X.  B 
throws  to  C,  but  now  Xj  the 
unoccupied  space,  is  that 
vacated  by  A,  so  B  runs 
there.  After  C  throws  to  A  she  sees  that  B's 
first  place  has  now  become  vacant,  and  runs  there. 
We  are  now  ready  for  the  second  series  and  the 
positions  are; 

A"- 

C  X 

B' 


BASKETBALL 


205 


(2)  A  has  the  ball  and  throws  as  before  to  B,  run- 
ning to  X;  when  B  gets  the  ball  she  throws  to  C  and 
crosses  straight  over  to  the 
place  just  vacated  by  Ay 
and  C  throws  to  A  and  goes 
down  to  the  place  vacated 
by  B.  The  positions  for  the 
third  series  now  are: 

B' 
X  A"" 

(3)  A  throws  to  B  and  runs  across ;  B  throws  to  C 
and  then  runs  to  the  place  vacated  by  ^;  C  throws 

back  to  A  and  goes  up  to 
the  place  where  B  started. 
The  positions  for  the  fourth 
series  now  are: 


B^ 


X 


(4)  A  throws  to  B  and 
runs  down  to  X;  B  throws  to 
C  and  goes  straight  across 
to  the  place  vacated  by  ^,and 
C  throws  to  A  and  runs  to  the 
place  just  vacated  by  B.  The 
players  are  now  in  the  same 
position  as  when  they  first 
began  the  series  and  are  ready 
to  do  the  play  all  over  in  the 
same  way.     This  play  is  not  learned  until  they  cazi 


206 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 


go  through  the  whole  four  series  at  least  three  times 
without  error  or  dropping  the  ball. 

I,  II  and  III  are  the  basis  of  all  team  work.  No 
play,  change  or  combination  will  appear  in  any 
team  play  whose  principles  are  not  found  here,  be  it 
three-  or  five-girl  plays.  They  teach  the  player  to 
keep  her  head;  to  throw  the  balls  without  running 
with  them ;  to  catch  and  throw  promptly ;  to  change 
positions  accurately  ;  to  throw  the  balls  from  the  posi- 
tion in  which  they  are  caught ;  to  hold  the  ball  away 
from  the  body,  etc.  They  offer  the  best  practice  for 
getting  the  ball  out  of  corners  and  taking  it  down  the 
field.  They  also  teach  the  players  to  protect  a  weak 
or  unoccupied  part  of  the  field,  and  to  use  every  op- 
portunity. Players  who  have  done  this  preliminary 
team  practice  well  will  unconsciously,  during  the  ex- 
citement of  the  game,  carry  out  these  very  plays, 
even  with  opponents  against 
them,  much  to  the  dehght  of  the 
audiences. 


^F' 


C.< 


•^ 


IV 


Q 


Q> 


This  series  possesses  the  addi- 
tional advantage  of  using  all  of 
the  team  and  of  advancing  the 
ball.  Guard^  has  the  ball  near 
the  basket,  and  throws  to  guard* 
and  runs  ahead  to  receive  the  ball 
again.  Then  she  throws  to  center  and  gradually 
leads  her  forward  back,  as  she  is  the  rear  guard.  The 
center  throws  to  forward^  and  not  wishing  to  draw 


^'G^ 


Q' 


BASKETBALL 


207 


the  down  field  forward  away  from  goal  runs  down  and 
receives  the  ball  from  the  forward  and  then  throws 
to  forward",  or  for  goal,  depending  on  the  oppor- 
tunity. The  positions  may  vary,  but  this  is  one  of 
the  most  common  and  simplest  forms  of  five-team 
play.  In  all  of  the  plays  where  the  ball  is  carried 
down  the  field,  the  number  of  changes  made  depends 
chiefly  on  the  size  of  the  field.  Short  passes  can  be 
practised  by  lessening  the  distances  between  positions. 


>-r 


-kF' 


F' 


^C?i 


This  series  possesses  the  advantage  of  teaching  a 
team  as  a  whole  to  change  positions  rapidly,  to  pro- 
tect its  field  and  to  get  away 
from  its  opponents.  The  cen- 
ter gets  the  ball  under  the  F'^-c!^ 
basket,  which  the  instructor 
has  thrown.  She  then  throws 
it  to  guards  who  throws  it  to  Q"^^--^ 
guard".  In  the  meantime  the 
center  has  run  down  the  field  y 

to  receive  the  ball  from  guard",  (jz  -^  — 
who  after  throwing  to  her  runs 
ahead.  Center  then  throws  to 
guard^,  who  has  advanced  the  latter,  passing  the  ball 
on  to  guard^.  A  little  past  center  the  forwards  take 
the  ball  in  the  same  way,  and  the  center  or  forward 
nearest  the  basket  throws  for  goal  and  starts  the 
same  play  back.  This  should  be  done  the  length  of 
the  field  three  times  in  succession  without  error  or 


a 


y 


G^ 


208 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 


fumble  before  the  instructor  can  be  sure  the  girls 
know  it. 

VI 
This  is  the  same  play  as  No.  V  except  that  the 
players  cross  over,  which  is  No.  Ill  applied  to  five 
players.  While  rarely  successful  in  contests  where 
teams  are  equally  matched,  it  is  invaluable  in  train- 
ing players  to  change  to 
the  side  of  the  field  that  is 
not  protected.  Guard^ 
starts  the  ball  to  guard^, 
who  throws  it  to  center, 
and  then  guard^  crosses 
over  ahead  of  guard^,  and 
guard^  crosses  ahead  of 
where  guard*  first  stood, 
and  receives  the  ball  from 
guard*.  The  forwards 
\q2  make  the  same  play  at  the 
other  end  of  the  field. 
This  can  be  combined  with  V  and  the  straight  field 
played  at  one  end  and  the  cross  field  at  the  other. 
Require  the  players  to  change  off  the  second  time 
they  do  it,  without  being  reminded.  This  play 
should  be  carried  uninterruptedly  through  the  entire 
field  two  or  three  times,  and  it  has  been  done  without 
mistake,  by  a  team,  six  times. 

VII 

An  interesting  variation  is  the  straight  line  play. 
In    giving    this    the    next    one   to    receive   the   ball 


BASKETBALL 


209 


miist  not  run  to  get  into  line  until  the  girl  who 
is  to  throw  to  her  receives  the  ball. 
Otherwise  the  formation  will  be 
given  away  and  the  opponents' 
will  be  there,  too.  Guard^  gets  the 
ball,  the  center  who  is  on  the  other 
side  runs  in  behind  her  to  receive  it 
and  guard^  then  crosses  over  to  re- 
ceive it  from  center.  While  the 
forwards  are  getting  into  line  the 
center  runs  straight  toward  the 
basket.  When  she  gets  the  ball 
she  starts  the  same  play  back  again,  all  crossing  to 
the  other  side. 

VIII 

A  difficult  variation,  which  can  be  attempted  only 
after  much  practice  in  team  work,  is  to  have  guards 
and   forwards    take   the   center 
place  and  have  the  center  play 
out.       Center^    gets    the    ball, 
throws  it  to  guard^ ;  then  in- 
stead of  keeping  in  the  center 
field  she  runs  out  to  the  side. 
Guard^    then    throws    the    ball 
ahead  to  guard^,  who  throws  it 
to  center  in  her  new  position. 
Then   guard^  takes   the  center 
When  it  comes  to  the  forward  end, 
they  make  the  same  changes  with  the  center  that  the 
guards    did.      If   the   players   are   not   very   quick 


Oir' 


position,  etc. 


210  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

guard^  will  have  to  follow  down  the  field  so  as  to  be 
ready  in  case  the  others  do  not  get  into  position  in 
time. 

These  illustrative  plays  by  no  means  represent  all 
of  the  possible  combinations.  They  simply  indicate 
some  of  the  possibilities  and  show  the  splendid  mental 
training,  the  superb  physical  control  and  the  admir- 
able group  education  which  team  work  gives.  It  is 
the  training  which  is  most  valuable,  whether  the  plays 
are  used  in  contests  or  not.  Dancing  and  other  es- 
thetic exercises  are  not  more  beautiful  and  graceful 
than  the  precision,  form  and  skill  with  which  these 
team  plays  may  be  made. 

Basketball  gives  girls  another  opportunity  for  team 
practice  which  few  other  games  provide,  namely  the 
use  of  signals.  These  have  to  be  comparatively  sim- 
ple. The  various  team  plays  may  be  indicated  by 
numerals  or  letters  or  names.  These  may  also  be  used 
to  indicate  a  player's  change  of  position  when  one  of 
her  side  gets  the  ball.  For  instance,  if  a  forward  sees 
that  her  center  will  get  the  ball  she  can  say  seven — 
and  her  center  knows  that  an  odd  number  means  that 
she  intends  to  run  quickly  to  the  right  side  of  the  field. 
The  opposing  guard,  not  knowing  what  seven  means, 
has  to  wait  until  she  starts  to  run  before  she  knows 
the  direction.  It  is  a  great  advantage  to  know  where 
to  throw  a  ball  without  turning  to  see.  Simple  visual 
signals  like  throwing  the  head  back  for  a  long  ball, 
or  holding  the  right  hand  out  horizontally  for  a  ball 
to  be  thrown  in  that  direction,  etc.,  are  effective. 
Throwing  the  hand  up  may  be  taken  as  a  signal  for 


BASKETBALL  211 

a  high  ball  and  gives  the  player  a  chance  to  make 
the  distance.  Bending  forward  is  a  good  signal  for 
a  floor  ball.  Successful  use  of  team  plays  and  sig- 
nals depends  upon  a  strong  center,  and  players 
should  avoid  giving  signals  when  they  have  a  poor 
chance.  Some  girls  think  signals  are  only  valuable 
to  attract  attention  of  other  players  and  audience  and 
do  it  when  they  are  in  poor  position.  It  has  become 
such  a  habit  that  calling  players  by  their  first  name, 
which  means  "  throw  me  the  ball,"  is  done  by  girls  who 
are  replacing  side-combs  or  fastening  suits,  with  no 
idea  that  they  will  get  the  ball.  This  is  not  team 
work. 

Unfortunately  these  team  plays  and  signals  are  not 
used  a  great  deal  by  girls.  Instructors '  only  think 
them  worth  while  to  win  games  and  not  for  individual 
training.  Clapping  hands,  yells,  whistles,  etc.,  are 
more  popular  though  not  pleasing  or  successful,  for 
if  all  the  players  want  the  ball,  they  all  do  these 
things  at  once. 

In  the  use  of  these  team  plays  and  signals  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  habit  of  running  with  the 
ball  is  not  formed;  that  the  game  docs  not  become  a 
series  of  passes  with  no  try  at  goal;  and  that  the  ball 
always  goes  forward  and  is  not  played  back  into  the 
opponents'  territory. 


CHAPTER  X 

INDOOR  BASEBALL 
VALUE  OF  THE  GAME 

Baseball  is  not  widely  played  by  women,  but  pos- 
sesses the  greatest  educational  possibilities,  for  it  is 
the  most  highly  organized  of  all  games.  There  have 
been  four  causes  of  the  lack  of  interest :  the  hard  ball, 
the  heavy  bat,  the  long-distance  throws  and  the  com- 
plexity of  the  rules.  While  retaining  all  of  the  fun 
and  value  of  the  outdoor  game,  indoor  baseball  has 
solved  all  of  these  problems  but  one,  and  is  admirably 
suited  to  women.  It  was  invented  in  Chicago  in 
1887,  but  was  not  popular  at  first,  owing  to  the  great 
difficulty  of  devising  rules  enabling  a  base-runner  to 
get  from  base  to  base  after  a  pitched  ball.  The  in- 
door game  may  be  played  outdoors  by  using  a  larger 
diamond  and  the  smallest  ball  allowed  by  the  regu- 
lations. 

Advantages — The  ball  used  is  soft ;  the  bats  are 
short  and  light ;  curves  are  not  much  used ;  the  pitch- 
ing is  the  straight  arm,  which  is  especially  easy  for 
girls,  as  it  is  the  way  they  ordinarily  throw;  gloves 
and  masks  are  not  required,  as  the  element  of  injury 
is  greatly  minimized ;  sliding  bases  is  but  little  prac- 
tised, owing  to  the  rule  that  the  base-runner  cannot 

212 


INDOOR  BASEBALL  213 

leave  the  base  until  after  the  ball  has  passed  the 
batsman  or  while  the  pitcher  holds  it;  bunting  ia 
much  used,  so  strength  does  not  count  for  a  great 
deal;  and  the  distances  are  short,  so  the  throws  need 
cause  no  strain.  A  high  degree  of  exertion  is  re- 
quired only  at  intervals  and  then  is  not  prolonged. 
Above  all  it  is  a  pretty  game  with  much  fun  in  it. 
The  only  remaining  difficulty  is  the  complexity  of 
the  rules. 

Baseball  has  some  advantages  over  basketball.  It 
can  be  played  by  girls  not  strong  enough  to  endure 
the  constant  strain  of  basketball.  The  order  of 
team  work  is  higher,  for  every  player  has  to  learn 
to  field,  bat  and  run  bases,  and  she  has  to  adapt 
herself  to  more  players  and  learn  more  varied  plays 
than  in  basketball.  It  also  accommodates  more  play- 
ers at  one  time. 

Baseball  like  basketball  requires  a  good  body  and 
good  lungs,  but  there  is  so  little  strain  that  almost 
any  girl  can  play.  It  develops  to  the  highest  degree, 
concentration,  observation,  memory,  judgment,  quick- 
ness, accuracy  and  the  moral  qualities.  An  illustra- 
tion of  unselfishness  through  team  work  is  the  "  sacri- 
fice hit,"  where  the  batsman  deliberately  puts  herself 
out  in  order  that  another,  who  has  a  better  chance, 
may  score.  No  game  offers  better  opportunities  for 
corrections  in  bad  standing  postures  and  general 
carriage.  The  following  suggestions  for  teaching  in- 
door baseball  to  girls  are  made  at  lengtlj,  in  the  hope 
that  the  game  will  be  more  widely  used  for  both  edu- 
cation and  recreation,  as  it  so  richly  deserves.     More 


214  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

information  is  available  for  those  who  wish  to  play 
baseball  than  basketball,  but  it  is  also  more  technical. 
Spalding's  many  books  on  outdoor  baseball  and 
how  to  play  the  various  positions  and  bat  contain 
many  valuable  suggestions, 

METHODS   OF   INSTRUCTION 

As  in  basketball,  there  should  be  much  preliminary 
class  work  in  the  use  of  the  bat,  throwing,  catching 
and  base-running.  We  have  found  baseball  most  in- 
telligible and  easily  taught  by  dividing  the  instruc- 
tion into  the  following  groups:  Duties  of  various 
positions;  definition  of  terms;  rules  applicable  to 
the  various  positions.  The  following  suggestions 
are  made  according  to  this  classification : 

Pitcher. — It  is  well  to  make  clear  to  the  pitcher 
from  the  start  that  she  has  other  responsibihties  than 
merely  throwing  the  ball  to  the  batsman ;  that  play- 
ing the  bases  is  important,  and  that  she  is  respon- 
sible for  fielding  batted  balls  in  her  territory.  There 
are  second  season  pitchers  who  never  go  out  of  the 
box  because  they  have  been  instructed  "  only  to 
pitch."  Teaching  the  pitcher  to  play  second  base 
when  the  baseman  goes  after  balls  should  be  begun 
early.  Strive  to  develop,  first,  accuracy,  then  head 
work,  and  lastly  speed. 

The  pitcher  should  practise  getting  control  of  her 
ball  for  a  little  longer  distance;  then  in  a  game  her 
control  remains  good  with  shorter  distances.  Have 
her  observe  the  style  of  the  batsman.  For  instance, 
if  she  stands  close  to  the  plate  and  grasps  the  bat 


INDOOR  BASEBALL  215 

near  the  handle,  throw  the  balls  toward  the  inner 
side  of  the  plate,  for  these  are  difficult  to  hit.  If  she 
stands  well  back,  a  ball  on  the  outer  side  may  be 
hard  to  hit. 

Establish  the  feeling  of  co-operation  between 
pitcher  and  catcher.  In  order  to  get  balls  over  the 
plate,  the  pitcher  needs  something  to  aim  at,  and 
the  catcher's  hands  in  a  good  position  help  her  a 
great  deal.  From  the  beginning,  have  her  throw 
careful  balls,  and  have  the  ball  held  in  the  same  way 
before  delivery.  Although  only  one  base  can  be 
taken  on  a  passed  or  muffed  ball,  it  is.  most  important 
to  remember  in  training,  and  the  catcher  should  re- 
turn the  ball  to  the  pitcher  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  pitcher  in  indoor  baseball  need  not  be  taught 
to  watch  the  bases  while  she  holds  the  ball,  for  no  bases 
can  be  stolen,  but  she  should  always  know  how  many 
base-runners  are  on  bases,  their  location  and  the 
number  of  outs,  and  should  make  up  her  mind  before 
she  pitches  where  she  will  play  the  ball  if  she  gets  it. 
Teach  her  to  put  out  the  one  farthest  around,  and 
when  there  is  a  runner  on  third,  to  pitch  accurately 
so  the  catcher  will  not  miss  the  ball. 

When  there  is  not  the  full  number  of  shortstops, 
the  pitcher  plays  this  position  and  leads  up  toward 
home  immediately  after  delivering  the  ball,  so  as  to 
be  ready  for  a  bunt  or  pop-up. 

Catcher — The  catcher  needs  to  be  observant  and 
cool  and  to  have  a  good  steady  hand  and  be  capable 
of  good  head-work.  Size  and  weight  are  of  some 
importance,  speed  is  desirable,  and  she  must  be  fear- 


216  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

less.  A  timid  person  rarely  plays  well  behind  tlie 
bat  at  first,  but  it  is  a  good  place  to  develop  physical 
courage,  as  well  as  desirable  mental  qualities. 

The  catcher  stands  directly  behind  the  bat.  The 
first  thing  is  to  teach  her  to  stand  up  close  and  not 
to  be  afraid  of  the  bat  or  ball.  Practice  in  catching 
hard-thrown  balls  will  help  this.  The  second  thing 
is  to  insist  that  she  "  clutch  "  the  ball  when  once  it 
reaches  her.  The  large  soft  ball  is  likely  to  get  away 
unless  much  care  is  used  in  teaching  players  how  ta 
use  their  fingers  in  catching.  The  third  thing  is  for 
her  to  throw  the  ball  accurately  as  soon  as  she  catches 
it.  The  fourth  thing  is  to  teach  her  to  anticipate 
the  ball.  For  instance,  if  it  is  going  high,  jump;  if 
wide,  run  to  one  side.  Insist  upon  her  making  an 
effort  to  get  the  ball  instantly  and  never  to  take  it 
for  granted  that  a  run  will  be  made.  She  must  be 
taught  to  watch  bases  and  throw  to  the  right  one 
instantly.  She  should  always  make  careful  note  of 
the  position  of  each  base-runner,  number  of  outs, 
etc.,  before  each  pitched  ball. 

She  is  the  home  baseman  and  as  such  has  to  learn 
its  tactics.  This  double  position  needs  much  atten- 
tion, as  it  is  very  difficult  to  teach  girls  this  com- 
bination. 

By  putting  hands  in  position  the  catcher  can  signal 
if  she  wants  a  high  or  a  low  ball.  The  pitcher  need 
not  throw  it,  but  if  they  work  together  the  catcher's 
instructions  are  usually  followed. 

She  always  makes  an  effort  to  catch  all  fouls — 
for  a  foul  tip  caught  counts  as  a  strike  and  a  foul 


INDOOR  BASEBALL  217 

hit  caught  is  out.  She  has  a  view  of  the  entire  field 
and  knows  all  that  is  going  on,  and  is  therefore  most 
responsible  for  the  field.  She  plans  plays  to  catch  the 
runners  and  keeps  the  pitcher  moving.  When  two 
are  out  a  run  on  a  passed  ball  is  almost  always  tried, 
so  the  catcher  must  watch  closely.  She  must  always 
know  where  the  ball  is.  Sometimes  when  the  ball  is 
in  the  outfield  her  attention  is  diverted  by  a  girl  steal- 
ing in,  and  she  loses  track  of  it.  Then  when  it  is 
thrown  to  her  it  often  hits  her  because  she  is  not 
paying  attention.  The  natural  attitude  of  most 
players  is  that  there  is  nothing  to  do  when  they  do 
not  have  the  ball. 

Avoid  throwing  too  high  or  too  hard  balls  into  the 
field,  as  girls  are  not  expert  catchers.  When  catch- 
ing a  ball  always  give  with  it.  Players  have  a  tend- 
ency to  hold  the  body  rigid  and  arm  stiff  and  thus 
receive  more  jar  and  strain. 

Batsmen. — When  one  team  goes  to  field,  every 
girl  on  the  opposing  team  becomes  a  batsman  and  all 
scoring  is  done  while  they  are  at  bat.  This  is  where 
baseball  excels  every  other  game  in  its  educational 
value,  for  a  new  kind  of  physical  control,  mental 
activity  and  group  combination  is  required.  The 
girl  who  a  minute  before  was  using  all  her  faculties 
to  outwit  the  base-runner,  now  endeavors  to. outwit 
the  very  position  she  just  played. 

Coolness,  a  good  eye  for  distances  and  good  judg- 
ment are  the  first  essentials.  While  no  two  people  bat 
alike,  it  is  difficult  for  a  girl  to  assume  an  easy,  nat- 
ural attitude  and  use  all  of  her  muscles.     She  should 


218  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

stand  so  the  bat  wijl  swing  over  the  plate  and  a  little 
back  so  she  can  judge  where  the  ball  will  pass.  Un- 
graceful positions  can  well  be  avoided.  At  first  she 
bats  only  with  her  arms,  hugs  her  elbows  to  her  sides, 
or  keeps  the  arms  stiff.  Much  preliminary  work  has 
to  be  done  in  teaching  the  free  use  of  the  body  in 
batting.  Girls  bunt  exceedingly  well,  and  it  is  worth 
while  spending  considerable  time  on  this. 

When  players  are  used  to  handling  the  bat  and  are 
not  afraid  to  use  it,  they  are  ready  to  discriminate 
as  to  when  to  strike  and  when  not  to.  Over  ,the  plate 
and  between  knee  and  shoulder  seemO^Saple^'msuaiC::- 
tion,  but  at  first  they  hit  at  a  sky-scraper  or  stoop 
down  to  dust  the  plate,  so  anxious  are  they  to  "  hit 
something."  A  great  deal  of  time  must  be  spent  in 
teaching  them  to  judge  when  a  ball  is  a  ball  and 
when  a  strike.  The  absence  of  curves  renders  this  less 
difficult  than  in  outdoor  ball.  They  are  careless 
about  remembering  how  many  "  balls  "  and  strikes 
they  have  and  "  forget  to  run."  For  this  reason 
they  need  to  be  urged  to  get  under  way  quickly  after 
every  hit.  If  it  is  a  foul,  they  can  come  back  any- 
way, and  no  harm  is  done.  They  have  such  a  natural 
aversion  to  starting  unless  they  are  sure,  that  the 
matter  of  quick  starts  has  to  be  overdone  at  first. 

The  lack  of  initiative  is  exposed  pitilessly  in  base- 
ball. The  batsman  always  waits  to  be  told  to  run,  she 
sticks  to  her  base  until  forced  off ;  she  hesitates  to  take 
a  risk ;  and  waits  to  see  if  the  third  strike  is  caught. 
Instead  of  running  and  hearing  the  decision  after- 
ward, she.  wants  the  decision  first,  and  is  slow  to  learn 


INDOOR  BASEBALL  219 

to  take  risks.  Another  thing,  girls  are  inclined  to 
start  slowly  and  gradually  increase  speed.  The  re- 
verse is  needed.  After  a  hit  speed  must  be  greatest 
at  the  start,  because  the  distance  is  short  and  it 
counts  for  most  at  the  beginning. 

The  girl  can  now  handle  her  bat,  she  knows  strikes 
from  balls  and  how  to  get  away  after  a  hit.  She  is 
then  ready  to  learn  something  of  placing  hits.  She 
looks  up  the  outs  and  position  of  her  base-runners 
and  decides  what  kind  of  hit  will  help  most,  and  then 
tries  to  make  it.  For  instance,  if  there  is  a  girl  on 
first,  it  is  a  good  thing  to  bunt,  as  a  fly  may  mean  a 
double  out.  A  bunt  is  also  a  good  play  when  there 
are  runners  on  first  and  second  with  no  one  out.  As 
a  rule  she  hits  high-pitched  balls,  and  bunts  low  ones. 
To  bunt  a  ball  successfully,  slide  the  hand  quickly 
down  the  bat  after  the  hall  has  started  from  the 
pitcher,  and  let  the  bat  give  with  the  hall  when  it  is 
hit,  holding  the  bat  well  in  front  of  the  body. 

For  a  fake  bunt  before  the  hall  is  pitched,  slide  the 
hand  down  the  bat  and  get  into  a  position  as  for  a 
bunt.  The  shortstop  will  begin  to  draw  up  to  the 
batsman ;  then-  suddenly  slide  the  hand  up,  swing  the 
bat  back  and  hit  hard. 

With  basemen  and  fielders  who  cannot  hold  hard- 
hit  balls  well,  a  hard  swing  is  not  as  effective  as  a 
long  sweeping  swing  or  short  quick  chop,  which  gives 
a  hit  that  may  land  a  base.  Left-handed  batsmen 
should  be  encouraged,  as  the  swing  throws  them  in 
direct  line  for  first  base. 

Base-Runners. — It  is  difficult  at  first  to  make  clear 


220  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

to  a  girl  just  when  she  ceases  to  be  a  batsman  and 
becomes  a  base-runner,  with  a  new  set  of  rules  to  reg- 
ulate her  actions  and  a  new  set  of  tactics.  She  be- 
comes a  base-runner  under  the  following  conditions: 
(1)  Immediately  after  four  balls.  (2)  Immediately 
after  three  strikes.  (3)  Immediately  after  she 
makes  a  fair  hit.  (4)  If  pitcher  does  not  give  her 
time  to  return,  after  she  starts  on  a  foul  hit,  etc. 
(5)  When  a  fair  hit  ball  strikes  the  umpire.  (6) 
When  she  is  stopped  or  obstructed  by  an  adversary. 
(7)  On  an  illegal  pitch. 

The  business  of  the  base-runner  seems  simple — to 
get  from  base  to  base  without  being  put  out — but  it 
is  a  perilous  journey  to  the  beginner,  and  she  needs 
considerable  encouragement.  In  the  first  place  she 
has  erroneous  ideas  about  being  put  out.  The  aver- 
age girl  thinks  it  means  she  is  out  of  the  game,  and 
not  infrequently  goes  home.  She  also  thinks  it  a 
humiliation  if  she  fails  to  catch  a  ball.  If  she  is  put 
out  often  she  gets  discouraged. 

Getting  around  all  the  bases  and  home  without  be- 
ing put  out  is  an  art.  This  depends  upon  the  ability 
— first  to  hit  balls  at  all,  and  second  to  place  them ; 
third  to  run ;  and  fourth  upon  head-work — such  as 
judging  distances,  seizing  opportunities,  etc.  Base- 
running  means  getting  the  most  out  of  every  situa- 
tion with  the  least  possible  effort.  In  outdoor  base- 
ball, she  can  steal  a  base  at  any  time ;  in  indoor  ball 
only  after  the  ball  has  passed  the  batsman  and  then 
only  one  base;  or  when  a  ball  is  hit,  then,  as  many 
as  she  can  get. 


INDOOR  BASEBALL  221 

The  distance  between  bases  is  so  short  that  bursts 
of  speed  are  required.  Practising  starts  in  dashes 
is  good  training  for  this.  Sometimes  when  a  ball  is 
caught  it  is  dropped,  and  unless  it  is  a  fly,  the  base- 
runner  should  keep  on  going.  Her  business  is  to  get 
to  the  base  and  not  to  stop  every  instant  and  see 
what  is  going  on  back  of  her.  She  should  always 
know  where  the  ball  is  and  must  remember  that  first 
is  the  only  base  that  may  be  overrun. 

When  the  pitcher  has  not  the  ball  the  runner  may 
bluff  by  getting  off  a  base  in  order  to  have  the  ball 
thrown  there,  and  then  run  on  to  the  next.  Judg- 
ment of  time  and  distances  plus  speed  make  safe  base- 
running. 

A  runner  should  not  get  the  idea  that  the  next 
batsman  will  always  help  her  out  after  she  gets  to 
first.  Many  outs  are  due  to  timidity.  "  I  knew  I  was 
all  right  there,  but  not  sure  of  the  next,"  said  one 
player.  When  the  rule  of  two  on  a  base  is  explained 
they  think  it  the  fault  of  the  batsman  who  runs  them 
off,  not  realizing  their  responsibility  in  making  way 
for  her.  When  team  work  is  dwelt  upon,  signals  be- 
tween batsman  and  runner,  as  to  the  kind  of  play 
they  will  make  together,  are  helpful.  There  is-  the 
danger  of  being  too  self-satisfied.  When  a  runner 
makes  one  base  she  is  often  so  pleased  that  she  for- 
gets all  other  players  or  that  there  is  anything  more 
to  be  done  to  score. 

Sliding  bases  is  not  much  used  in  indoor  ball  and 
is  not  advocated  for  girls,  as  effective  slides  are 
usually  head  first.     The  game  can  be  successfully 


222  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

played  without  them.  Sliding  even  for  small  girls  is 
always  to  be  discouraged,  owing  to  the  liability  to 
injury  on  the  hard  floor.  As  a  rule  they  do  not  do  it 
gracefully,  and  they  have  quite  enough  to  learn  to 
do  well,  without  undertaking  unnecessary  tactics. 
Where  it  is  practised  out  of  doors,  it  is  best  to  take 
a  long  slide  usually,  on  the  inside  of  bag,  and  catch 
hold  of  bag  in  passing.  This  depends  upon  the  posi- 
tion of  the  baseman  and  sometimes  it  is  better  to  go 
on  the  outside  of  the  bag.  Once  started  on  a  slide  it 
is  best  not  to  look  back,  lest  she  change  her  mind. 
She  can  usually  judge  by  a  baseman's  action  where 
the  ball  is.  If  the  throw  is  high,  slide  on  the  inside ; 
if  the  baseman  is  in  front  of  the  base,  slide  on  the 
outside. 

Stealing  bases  adds  to  the  excitement  and  interest. 
A  good  time  to  steal  is:  (1)  When  there  is  a  girl  on 
first  and  the  batsman  is  getting  strikes  or  is  a  weak 
batsman.  (2)  When  a  weak  batsman  is  up  and  two 
are  out  and  the  base-runner  is  on  third.  (3)  When 
the  bases  are  full  and  a  hunter  comes  to  the  bat. 
Stealing  third  is  not  so  often  attempted.  It  is  mostly 
on  second  and  home,  for  a  hit  counts  for  as  much  at 
second  as  at  third. 

In  order  to  become  good  base-runners,  the  follow- 
ing should  be  practised  constantly:  getting  a  quick 
start  from  the  plate;  getting  down  to  first  with  the 
utmost  diligence;  cutting  the  bags  from  the  inside 
when  running  for  more  than  one  base ;  getting  under 
way  quickly;  avoiding  changing  the  mind  when 
starting  to  run ;  avoiding  crowding  the  runner  ahead 


INDOOR  BASEBALL  223 

off  her  base ;  getting  away  from  first  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, for  that  is  the  only  place  for  the  batsman  if  she 
makes  a  hit ;  and  dodging  flies,  for  if  they  hit  the 
base-runner  she  is  out. 

Basemen — With  the  exception  of  first,  the  busi- 
ness of  the  baseman  is  to  catch  the  ball  and  tag  the 
base-runner  with  it,  either  between  bases  or  on  the 
base.  Each  baseman  is  responsible  for  putting  base- 
runners  out  at  the  base  she  is  holding  down.  The 
mistakes  most  commonly  made  are:  Basemen  think 
base-runners  are  out:  if  they  throw  the  ball  at  them 
and  hit  them  before  they  reach  the  base ;  if  they  hold 
the  ball  in  one  hand  and  touch  them  with  the  other 
or  their  feet;  if  they  catch  the  ball  and  touch  base 
before  the  runner  gets  there,  and  then  throw  the  ball 
again,  before  the  runner  arrives.  This  last  holds 
good  only  at  first. 

Basemen  must  be  good  catchers,  able  to  pick  up 
grounders  and  to  use  the  underhand  throw  so  much 
despised  in  basketball.  A  good  practice  for  second 
and  third  basemen  is  to  throw  left-handed  balls.  It 
is  quicker  and  decreases  the  likelihood  of  colliding 
with  or  hitting  base-runners.  Remember  to  tag 
every  runner  and  field  every  ball  that  comes  near, 
and  not  hug  the  base  as  though  it  might  get  away. 
When  fielding  a  ball,  allow  time  to  return  to  the  base 
before  it  can  be  reached  by  the  base-runner.  Some 
basemen  have  to  be  urged  to  get  balls  in  their  terri- 
tory. On  one  occasion  the  first  baseman  missed  a 
high,  hard  ball  from  third.  She  jumped  up  and  down 
on  the  bag  squealing  for  help  until  all  her  team  began 


224  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

yelling  that  it  was  her  business.  The  three  base- 
runners  in  the  meantime  started  for  home.  Then  she 
started  on  a  dead  run,  picked  it  up  and  instead  of 
throwing  it  ran  with  all  her  might  toward  home, 
hugging  the  ball  and  calling  to  the  runners,  "  Wait 
a  minute,  wait  a  minute."  This  tendency  to  carry  the 
ball  instead  of  throwing  it  is  a  hard  one  to  over- 
come. 

The  fact  that  a  baseman  has  not  only  the  ball 
to  watch  but  the  pitcher  or  catcher  and  base-runner 
as  well,  develops  in  her  a  high  degree  of  co-operation. 
Double  plays  are  unusual  and  triple  plays  rarely 
occur.  The  head-work  and  quickness  required  for 
these  come  with  long  practice,  and  girls  have  not 
played  games  enough  to  reach  this  high  degree  of 
team  work.  It  is,  however,  worth  striving  for  in 
team  practice. 

To  be  able  to  play  the  various  bases  well  requires 
much  versatility,  for  the  same  tactics  are  not  em- 
ployed at  all  bases.  At  first,  the  main  thing  is  to  get 
the  ball  and  touch  the  base.  At  second  and  third 
a  baseman  may  have  to  play  fielder  if  a  ball  comes 
her  way  while  the  pitcher  or  shortstop  takes  her 
place.  When  the  bases  are  full  she  has  to  put  out 
the  runner  who  is  on  her  way  to  the  base  she  is  guard- 
ing, and  to  put  out  another  who.  may  be  on  her  way  to 
the  next.  At  third,  there  are  a  few  things  worth  re- 
membering constantly.  Never  block  a  runner  unless 
you  have  the  ball.  Avoid  mix-ups.  When  a  runner 
gets  on  third  the  excitement  is  intense,  as  a  score  is 
likely  and  too  many  people  try  to  get  the  ball.     This 


INDOOR  BASEBALL  225 

is  especially  true  of  flies.  With  bases  clear  the  third 
baseman  may  field  wherever  she  thinks  the  ball  may 
be  hit.  When  the  bases  are  empty  a  good  position 
while  waiting  for  a  ball  is  inside  between  second  and 
third  bases.  In  fielding  grounders,  keep  knees  to- 
gether and  body  low,  so  as  to  block  the  ball  if  the 
hands  miss  it.  The  third  baseman  should  make  a 
special  eff'ort  to  catch  foul  hits  in  her  direction. 

Shortstop. — Shortstops  play  inside  the  diamond 
and  give  attention  to  foul  hits,  bunts,  short  flies  or 
"  pop-ups  "  and  grounders.  Practice  should  empha- 
size :  Learning  quickly  to  catch  "  pop-ups,"  to  field 
grounders  and  to  make  quick  underhand  throws  to 
basemen.  Shortstops  may  have  to  play  basemen  if 
the  basemen  turn  fielder ;  and  so  need  to  know  the  tac- 
tics of  this  position.  Close  team  work  is  required 
among  the  shortstops,  catcher,  pitcher  and  base- 
man. 

Outfielders. — They  need  to  be  able  to  catch  flies 
and  to  practise  hanging  on  to  the  ball.  When  they 
miss  it  they  need  to  get  under  way  rapidly  so  as  to 
return  it  with  the  least  delay.  Learn  to  run  up  on 
the  grounders  and  to  pick  up  and  throw  balls  quickly. 
Fielders  need  good  eyes  to  be  able  to  judge  distances. 
They  are  required  to  make  the  longest  throws  and 
need  good  strong  arms. 

Never  take  the  eyes  off^  the  ball  from  the  time  the 
batter  is  ready  to  hit.  It  is  not  enough  to  see  it  when 
it  comes  your  way. 

An  outfielder  must  back  up  the  bases.  Whenever 
there  is  a  throw  to  bases  try  to  get  in  line  to  stop  it 


226  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

if  the  baseman  misses.  If  the  hit  is  over  the  head  too 
high  to  catch,  turn  instantly  and  run  back  so  as  to  be 
on  the  spot  where  the  ball  drops. 

Stand  squarely  facing  the  batter  so  a  run  can  be 
made  in  any  direction.  Never  give  up  trying  to  get 
a  ball  and  do  not  forget  to  jump  for  balls  over  the 
head. 

When  catching,  keep  the  thumbs  out  of  the  way. 
A  low  ball,  which  is  anything  below  the  waist-line, 
should  be  caught  with  the  thumb  line  toward  the  ball. 

The  following  suggestions  from  Spalding  rules 
are  applicable  to  the  indoor  game  for  girls : 

"  Always  keep  in  front  of  the  ball ;  always  go  in  to 
meet  the  ball;  when  running  to  the  right  pick  up  the 
ball  with  the  left  hand;  unless  there  is  plenty  of  time, 
always  throw  on  the  run ;  return  a  throw  to  the  catcher 
underhanded,  to  stop  a  double  steal;  never  throw  the 
ball  unless  your  chance  of  catching  the  runner  is  good; 
have  the  catcher  or  others  who  throw  to  you  aim  to 
reach  you  about  shoulder  high — you  are  then  in  a  better 
position  to  return  a  throw;  where  time  is  scarce,  scoop 
the  ball  to  the  player  covering  the  bag  with  the  same 
motion  that  you  field  it." 

Coaching  is  not  used  to  any  degree  in  indoor  ball, 
as  the  small  area  of  the  diamond  makes  it  little  needed. 
The  coacher  is  usually  a  player  who  goes  to  first  or 
third  base,  watches  the  plays  and  position  of  ball, 
and  encourages  or  advises  the  base-runner  when  to 
steal  a  base  and  when  to  run.  It  is  helpful  at  third 
base,  for  the  runner  cannot  very  well  turn  around  to 
see  what  is  going  on  in  the  field. 

If  the  main  part  of  the  game — as  pitching — is  ♦  j 


INDOOR  BASEBALL  227 

played  by  the  instructor  while  the  girls  are  green 
players,  good  results  are  obtained  in  understanding 
the  game  and  in  speed. 

Baseball  Rules. — Because  of  its  high  organiza- 
tion and  complicated  and  badly  arranged  rules,  base- 
ball must  be  taught  in  a  very  elementary  way  by  per- 
sons who  understand  and  love  the  game  sufficiently  to 
be  patient  with  the  slowness  and  many  faults  and 
misplays  of  new  players.  It  is  not  a  game  the  rudi- 
ments of  which  can  be  taught  in  a  half-dozen  lessons, 
as  is  basketball. 

In  basketball  a  girl  can  play,  if  she  learns  the 
tactics  of  but  one  position,  and  the  maximum  is  three. 
In  baseball,  she  cannot  play  until  she  has  learned  the 
tactics  of  at  least  three — batsman,  base-runner  and 
a  field  position,  and  she  may  try  seven  positions,  aU 
requiring  variation — pitcher,  catcher,  baseman, 
shortstop,  fielder,  batsman  and  base-runner.  Not 
only  this,  but  she  is  compelled  to  change  positions 
rapidly,  resulting  sometimes  in  ludicrous  confusion. 
On  one  occasion  a  hit  was  made,  letting  in  three  base- 
runners.  After  the  excitement  was  over  it  was  found 
that  the  third  baseman  was  standing  among  the  vic- 
torious group  of  base-runners  on  the  other  side. 
"  What  are  you  doing  with  the  opposing  team,  help- 
ing them  score?  "  asked  a  fellow  baseman. 

"  Helping  them  score ! "  said  the  bewildered  girl. 
**  Why,  I  saw  everybody  running  and  I  thought  I 
ought  to  run,  too,  so  I  came  along  with  Miss  J ." 

On  another  occasion  after  changing  sides,  one 
team  was  found  to  be  a  player  short.     One  of  the 


228  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

basemen  volunteered  to  go  and  look  her  up,  think- 
ing she  might  have  been  hurt.  She  was  found  dress- 
ing and  saying  unkind  things  about  baseball.  "  Are 
you  going  to  stop  playing.''  "  asked  the  baseman. 
*'  We  are  short  a  player  without  you."  "  Stop  play- 
ing !  "  retorted  the  girl.  "  Didn't  the  umpire  put  me 
out.'*  Baseball  is  the  worst  game  I've  ever  tried  to 
play.  Can't  play  ten  minutes  without  being  put  out 
of  the  game !  " 

There  are  so  many  things  to  learn  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  game  that  dire  confusion  often  prevails. 
We  have  seen  seven  players  all  on  second  base — the 
baseman  who  belonged  there  and  the  two  shortstops, 
the  pitcher  and  one  fielder — all  trying  to  shut  out  the 
base-runner  coming  from  first  and  another  base- 
runner  who  had  started  to  third,  but  changed  her 
mind  and  was  coming  back.  The  tendency  is  for  all 
players  to  gravitate  in  the  direction  of  the  ball. 

The  following  definitions  and  classification  may 
serve  as  a  ready  guide  for  instructors,  and  if  given 
to  the  players  in  this  way  are  readily  learned  and 
remembered. 

Definition  of  Terms. — Number  of  players  is 
usually  nine,  as  follows:  pitcher  and  catcher,  consti- 
tuting the  battery  ;  two  shortstops ;  three  basemen — 
first,  second  and  third;  and  two  fielders — right  and 
left.  By  tossing  up  a  bat  or  a  cent  the  sides  choose 
whether  they  will  go  to  bat  or  play  in  the  field. 

Going  to  bat  means  that  all  the  members  of  one 
side  take  their  turn  in  regular  order  one  after  the 
other  at  batting,  while  all  the  members  of  the  other 


INDOOR  BASEBALL  229 

side  play  in  the  field,  on  bases  and  pitch  and  catch. 
The  team  in  the  field  tries  to  put  out  the  team  at 
bat. 

Innings. — Baseball  is  scored  by  innings.  There 
are  two  halves  in  each  inning — one  for  each  team.  A 
half  lasts  until  three  members  of  one  team  are  put 
out;  an  inning  lasts  until  three  members  of  both 
teams  are  put  out.  There  are  nine  innings  in  a  game 
unless  it  is  a  tie,  or  otherwise  changed  by  agreement 
of  both  teams. 

Runs. — Baseball  is  scored  by  runs.  A  run  is  when 
a  batsman  succeeds  in  going  around  all  three  bases 
and  home  and  is  not  put  out  before  the  third  out  is 
called. 

Overrunning  base. — Overrunning  a  base  is  when  a 
base-runner  goes  beyond  the  bag  and  no  part  of  her 
body  touches  it. 

Foul  line. — The  foul  line  is  back  of  the  base  line 
from  home  to  first  and  from  home  to  third — all  the 
space  on  the  other  side  is  the  field. 

A  fair  ball  is  one  which  is  over  any  portion  of  the 
home  plate  between  the  knee  and  shoulder  of  the  bats- 
man. Such  a  ball  is  called  a  "  strike,"  whether  hit 
by  the  batsman  or  not. 

A  "  ball  "  is  called  by  the  umpire  when  a  pitched 
ball  does  not  go  over  any  part  of  the  plate  or  is  below, 
the  knee  or  higher  than  the  shoulder,  and  is  not 
struck  at  by  the  batsman.  When  the  batsman  bats 
at  such  a  ball,  no  matter  how  badly  thrown,  it  counts 
as  a  strike.  When  four  balls  have  been  thrown  be- 
fore three  strikes  are  called,  the  batsman  is  given  a 


230  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

base,  that  is,  allowed  to  go  to  first  without  being  put 
out. 

A  strike  is  (1)  when  any  ball  is  batted  at;  (2) 
when  it  is  a  fair  ball  and  not  batted  at;  (3)  a  foul 
tip  caught;  and  (4)  a  good  ball  interfered  with  by 
the  batsman. 

A  foul  tip  occurs  when  a  ball  is  hit  and  the  bat 
knocks  it  back  of  the  foul  line,  no  higher  than  the 
batsman's  head.  Such  a  ball,  if  caught,  counts  as  a 
"  strike." 

A  foul  ball  is  one  striking  back  of  the  foul  line, 
higher  than  the  head  and  not  caught.  Where  a 
ball  hits  first  and  not  where  it  rolls  is  the  test  of  a 
foul. 

A  foul  strike  occurs  when  a  ball  is  hit,  and  any 
part  of  the  person  of  the  batsman  is  outside  her  box. 

A  fair  hit  is  one  which  goes  into  the  field. 

A  bunt  is  a  ball  struck  soft,  so  as  to  fall  near  the 
home  plate. 

A  fly  is  a.  ball  batted  high  enough  in  the  air  to  be 
caught  before  touching  the  ground.  A  grounder  is 
one  which  skims  along  close  to  the  ground. 

An  illegal  ball  is  one  pitched  when  any  part  of  the 
pitcher's  body  is  out  of  her  box ;  or  when  she  fails  to 
heel  the  line;  or  when  she  takes  more  than  one  step 
forward.  Any  one  of  these  mistakes  entitles  the  bats- 
man or  base-runner  to  a  base. 

A  balk  occurs  when  the  pitcher  makes  a  motion  to 
deliver  the  ball  and  does  not  do  it;  or  holds  the  ball 
too  long  and  delays  the  game. 

A  dead  ball  is  caused  by  a  pitched  ball  hitting  the 


INDOOR  BASEBALL  231 

batsman,  but  does  not  entitle  the  batsman  to  a  base. 
If  it  is  the  third  strike,  the  batsman  is  out. 

A  one-base  hit  is  one  which  enables  the  batsman  to 
get  to  first ;  two-base  hit,  or  "  two  bagger,"  one  which 
enables  her  to  get  second ;  and  three-base  hit,  to  third 
without  stopping.  A  home  run  is  made  when  the  run- 
ner goes  all  the  way  round  without  stopping.  An 
umpire  calls  "  out "  when  the  batsman  is  to  retire ; 
and  ",safe"  if  she  has  reached  the  base  before  the 
ball  or  has  not  been  tagged,  or  slides  with  the  bag 
and  clings  to  it. 

A  double  out  occurs  when  the  ball  reaches  first  base 
before  the  batsman  and  then  is  thrown  to  second  base 
before  the  base-runner  from  first  gets  there.  In  this 
way  two  are  put  out.  This  may  occur  on  any 
base. 

A  forced  run  is  where  a  base-runner  holds  a  base 
and  is  forced  on  to  the  next  base  to  make  room  for 
another  base-runner  or  batsman. 

A  sacrifice  hit  occurs  when  the  batsman  hits  the 
ball  so  that  she  will  be  put  out,  thus  enabling  a  base- 
runner  who  is  on  third  or  second  to  score.  While  she 
is  being  put  out  at  first,  it  may  be  quite  easy  for  a 
runner  to  get  home. 

The  ball  is  not  in  play,  i.  e.,  no  one  can  run  or 
score,  (1)  when  there  is  a  foul  strike;  (2)  when  there 
is  a  foul  hit  ball  not  legally  caught ;  ( 3 )  when  there 
is  a  dead  ball;  and  (4)  when  the  base-runner  is  put 
out  by  being  hit  by  the  ball.  In  these  cases  the  ball 
IS  in  play  again  only  when  it  is  held  by  the  pitcher  in 
the  box. 


232  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

Rules  for  Batsmen. — The  batsman  is  out :  ( 1 )  If 
a  third  strike  is  caught  by  the  catcher.  (2)  If  there 
is  a  base-runner  on  first,  the  batsman  is  out  on  a  third 
strike  whether  it  is  caught  or  not ;  except  when  two 
are  already  out.  (3)  If  the  ball  is  not  caught  by  the 
catcher,  but  is  thrown  to  first  base  and  is  held  by  the 
first  baseman  while  some  part  of  her  body  touches  the 
base — before  the  batsman  gets  there.  (4)  If,  as  a 
base-runner,  she  is  touched  with  the  ball  in  the  hands 
of  a  fielder  before  she  reaches  a  base.  (5)  If  she 
bats  out  of  her  turn  and  makes  a  fair  hit  before  it  is 
discovered.  The  order  of  batting  is  made  up  before 
the  game  begins,  and  must  then  be  adhered  to.  (6) 
If  she  fails  to  take  her  position  within  one  minute 
when  it  is  her  turn  to  bat.  (7)  If  a  foul  hit  or  a 
fair  hit  is  caught.  (8)  If  she  makes  a  foul  strike, 
i.  e.,  bats  while  any  part  of  her  body  is  outside  the 
batsman's  box.  (9)  If  she  interferes  with  the 
catcher  or  intentionally  fouls  the  ball.  (10)  If 
she  intentionally  gets  in  the  way  of  a  pitched 
ball.  (11)  If  she  is  hit  by  the  ball  on  the  third 
strike,  i.  e.y  intentionally  fouls  the  ball  and  it  hits 
her. 

Rules  for  Base-Runners. — A  base-runner  can 
leave  her  base  only  when  the  ball  has  left  the  pitcher's 
hand  and  reached  or  missed  the  catcher.  If  she  leaves 
at  any  other  time  she  may  be  put  out  or  called  back. 
A  base-runner  who,  at  any  time  after  she  overruns 
first,  is  off  base,  may  be  put  out  if  she  is  touched  with 
the  ball  in  the  hands  of  a  player.  Only  one  base  may 
be  taken  when  a  ball  passes  the  batsman  or  is  fum- 


INDOOR  BASEBALL  233 

bled,  except  when  it  is  the  third  strike  or  four  balls, 
then  she  takes  all  she  can  get. 

A  base-runner  may  take  one  base  under  the  fol- 
lowing conditions :  ( 1 )  Immediately  when  the  umpire 
calls  four  balls  she  goes  to  first.  (2)  If  the  pitcher 
does  not  give  her  time  to  return.  (3)  When  a  fair 
hit  ball  strikes  the  umpire.  (4)  If  she  is  stopped  or 
obstructed  by  an  adversary. 

When  a  fair  or  foul  ball  is  caught  the  base- 
runner  can  only  advance  from  the  base  after  the  ball 
is  caught.  If  she  starts  before  she  must  go  back  and 
touch  base,  or  if  touched  with  the  ball  before  return- 
ing to  the  base,  she  is  out.  On  a  fair  hit  ball  a  base- 
runner  runs  all  the  bases  she  can  get.  A  base-runner 
must  be  on  base  when  the  pitcher  is  ready  to  deliver 
the  ball. 

The  base-runner  must  return  to  her  base  under  the 
following  conditions :  ( 1 )  When  there  is  a  foul  hit  not 
legally  caught.  (When  it  is  caught  it  is  a  strike  and 
the  base-runner  can  advance.)  (2)  When  there  is  a 
foul  strike.  (3)  When  a  dead  ball  is  called.  (4) 
When  the  umpire  is  struck  by  a  ball  thrown  to  the 
baseman.     (5)  When  she  leaves  her  base  too  soon. 

The  base-runner  may  be  put  out  under  the  fol- 
lowing conditions :  ( 1 )  If  a  foul  hit  or  fair  hit  is 
caught.  (2)  If  third  strike  is  caught.  (3)  If  she 
interferes  with  ball,  as  kicking  it.  (4)  If  after  three 
strikes  or  fair  hits  she  is  touched  with  the  ball  in 
hands  of  a  player,  or  the  ball  reaches  the  first  base 
before  she  does.  (5)  If  she  runs  more  than  three  feet 
either  side  of  the  base  line.     (6)  If  she  fails  to  avoid 


234  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

a  fielder  trying  to  field  a  batted  ball,  or  obstructs  a 
fielder.  (7)  If  at  any  time,  except  when  she  over- 
runs first,  she  is  touched  with  the  ball  in  the  hands 
of  a  fielder  when  no  part  of  her  body  touches  the  base, 
except  when  she  goes  back  on  a  foul,  or  is  ordered 
back  by  the  umpire  or  given  a  base.  If  a  base- 
runner  overruns  first  and  goes  on  to  second,  then  she 
is  not  entitled  to  exemption  for  overrunning.  (8) 
When  a  foul  hit  or  fair  hit  is  caught,  not  only  is  the 
batsman  out,  but  the  base-runner  also  if  the  ball 
reaches  the  baseman  before  she  returns  to  the  base 
and  touches  it  after  the  hall  was  caught.  (9)  When 
a  hit  ball  strikes  a  base-runner,  who  is  running  be- 
tween the  bases.  (10)  If  she  fails  to  touch  bases  as 
she  runs  and  the  ball  is  returned  first  to  the  base  that 
she  did  not  touch. 

A  baseman  on' first  need  not  touch  the  batsman 
running  to  first  ;von  a  double  play  where  a  fair  hit 
or  foul  hit  is  caught,  the  ball  need  only  be  held 
by  the  baseman.  At  all  other  times  she  must  be 
tagged. 

Illustrative   Hypothetical   Questions The  only 

way  to  make  baseball  popular  and  interesting  for 
girls  is  to  have  them  thoroughly  understand  it.  A 
series  of  hypothetical  questions  helps  them  in  this. 
The  following  are  some  illustrations : 

If  there  is  a  base-runner  on  first  and  on  second  and 
a  grounder  is  hit  to  third,  what  will  the  third  baseman 
do  with  the  ball.'' 

If  there  is  a  base-runner  on  second  and  the  short- 
stop gets  the  ball,  where  will  she  throw  it? 


INDOOR  BASEBALL  235 

If  there  are  base-runners  on  first  and  on  second 
and  the  right  fielder  catches  a  fly,  where  will  she 
throw  it? 

If  there  is  a  base-runner  on  third  and  the  ball  is 
hit  to  second  baseman,  what  does  she  do  with  it? 

If  there  is  a  base-runner  on  third  and  the  ball  is 
bunted,  and  the  catcher  gets  it,  what  will  she  do  with 
it? 

If  all  the  bases  are  full  and  the  ball  is  batted  to  the 
pitcher,  what  does  she  do  with  it? 

If  a  hit  grounder  misses  the  pitcher  and  goes  three 
feet  one  side  of  second  base,  what  should  the  second 
baseman  and  pitcher  do? 

If  there  is  a  base-runner  on  third  and  the  umpire 
calls  four  balls,  where  should  the  catcher  throw  the 
ball? 

If  all  the  bases  are  full  and  the  umpire  calls  three 
strikes  and  the  ball  is  caught,  where  should  the 
catcher  throw  it? 

If  a  pitched  ball  is  missed  by  the  catcher  and  she 
runs  for  it,  what  does  the  shortstop  do? 

When  a  base-runner  has  started  from  second  and 
the  ball  gets  to  third  before  she  does,  who  plays  and 
where  ? 

If  there  are  base-runners  on  first  and  on  second  and 
the  third  strike  is  caught,  where  is  the  ball  to  be 
thrown  ? 

If  there  is  a  base-runner  on  first  and  a  hot 
grounder  comes  to  the  second  baseman,  where  will  she 
throw  it? 

If  there  is  one  out  and  base-runners  on  first  and 


236  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

third  and  the  third  strike  goes  over  J;he  catcher's 
head,  to  whom  is  the  ball  thrown? 

If  there  is  a  base-runner  on  each  base  and  a 
grounder  goes  to  the  third  baseman,  what  does  she 
do  with  it?  If  it  is  a  fly  caught  by  her,  what  does 
she  do? 

When  no  base-runner  is  on  bases  and  a  hard  single 
grounder  goes  out  to  the  left  field,  where  should  the 
ball  be  returned? 

When  there  is  a  base-runner  on  third  and  a  single 
goes  to  the  right  fielder  uncaught,  where  should  it  be 
returned  ? 

When  there  is  a  base-runner  on  first  and  a 
grounder  gets  to  first  before  the  batsman,  what 
should  the  baseman  do  with  the  ball? 


CHAPTER  XI 

FIELD  HOCKEY 
VALUE  OF  THE  GAME 

Field  hockey  was  first  introduced  into  this  coun- 
try by  Miss  Constance  Appleby  in  1901.  The  game 
is  of  English  origin,  and  played  to  a  large  extent  by 
women's  clubs  in  England  and  Ireland,  where  the 
bright  greens  and  reds  of  the  club  costumes  add  much 
to  the  picturesqueness  of  the  game.  Ordinary  street 
clothes,  however,  with  a  skirt  at  least  six  inches  from 
the  ground,  are  suitable,  and  make  hockey  espe- 
cially adaptable  to  schools  where  only  an  unenclosed 
field  is  available,  and  where  outdoor  work  is  desired 
till  late  in  the  fall,  or  in  the  early  spring. 

The  game  can  be  played  on  any  large,  fairly  level 
lot.  The  more  evenly  graded  the  turf,  of  course,  the 
more  accurate  passing  is  possible  and  the  better 
game  results.  The  regulation  field  is  fifty  or  sixty, 
by  one  hundred  yards,  though  smaller  dimensions  can 
well  be  used.  The  only  paraphernalia  necessary  are 
the  regulation  ball  and  a  hockey  stick  for  each  player. 
A  great  deal  depends  on  the  kind  of  stick  used.  If 
it  is  too  light,  a  hard  stroke  will  jar  the  hands  and 
may,  with  repetition,  cause  injury.  A  good  average 
weight  is  22  ounces.     The  weight  depends  somewhat 

237 


ftSS  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

on  positions,  forwards  generally  using  lighter  sticks, 
halfbacks  the  medium  weight  and  fullbacks  the  heav- 
iest sticks. 

Hockey  has  an  especial  advantage  because  of  the 
chance  it  gives  to  so  many  different  types  of  girls  to 
play,  the  forward,  halfback,  fullback  and  goal  posi- 
tions each  calling  for  special  qualifications.  With 
eleven  players  on  a  side,  the  offense  and  defense  so 
finely  differentiated,  the  need  of  team  work  as  an  abso- 
lute necessity  to  scoring,  the  many  chances  of  clever 
strokes  and  of  outwitting  opponents — with  all  of 
these — the  educational  possibilities  are  manifold. 
Speed,  accuracy,  good  judgment,  fearlessness,  deter- 
mination, discrimination,  precision,  all  must  be  devel- 
oped to  make  good  hockey  players. 

It  is  surprising  that  hockey  is  so  little  played 
among  girls  in  this  country.  In  a  short  while  even 
comparatively  poor  players  become  very  fond  of  the 
game.  Wholly  apart  from  the  instructor,  the  game 
itself  seems  to  awaken  a  spirit  of  play  and  fun  which 
brings  a  glow  and  healthy  excitement  to  even  the  most 
sluggish  natures.  A  squad  of  girls  from  the  class- 
room who,  before  practice,  have  been  lifeless  and  dull, 
never  fail  to  return  full  of  spirit,  every  one  chatter- 
ing as  hard  as  she  can. 

METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  instructor,  hockey  is 
a  difficult  game  to  teach  for  two  reasons — the  size  of 
the  field  and  number  of  players.  There  are  eleven 
players  on  a  side,  five  forwards,  three  halfbacks,  two 


FIELD  HOCKEY  239 

fullbacks  and  a  goal.  To  watch  each  one  of  these 
twenty-two  players  on  such  a  large  playing  space, 
with  the  ball  traveling  so  quickly  back  and  forth,  is 
almost  a  physical  impossibility.  Before  the  in- 
structor can  reach  a  girl  who  has  made  a  bad  play, 
the  ball  may  be  down  at  the  other  end,  and  the  in- 
structor have  missed  two  or  three  plays.  Individual 
coaching  must  be  done  while  the  game  is  in  progress. 
Girls  who  are  at  fault  must  be  corrected  while  the  ball 
is  in  other  territory.  The  usual  plan  of  stopping  the 
practice  for  criticism  is  not  generally  desirable,  for 
that  would  mean  constant  interruption  and  loss  of 
the  spirit  of  the  game.  There  are,  of  course,  rules 
for  forwards  and  backs  as  a  whole  which  must  be 
taught^in  this  manner,  but  all  fine  points  of  coaching 
must  be  individual  while  the  ball  is  in  play. 

Rules. — In  contrast  to  basketball  and  baseball,  the 
rules  are  simple,  and  by  the  following  classification 
easy  to  learn : 

Fouls. — 1.  Rough  play.  2.  Carrying  ball.  3. 
Kicking  ball  (except  goal).  4.  Using  back  of  stick. 
6.  Sticks.    6.  Crosschecking.    7.  Off  side. 

Penalties. — I.  For  fouls:  1.  Committed  outside 
striking  circle.  2.  Committed  within  striking  circle: 
a,  by  attacking;  6,  by  defending.  II.  For  sending 
ball  out  of  field  of  play:  1.  Over  side  hnes.  2.  Over 
goal  lines,  a,  by  attacking;  6,  by  defending;  x, 
intentional;  y,  unintentional. 

Preliminary  Work  with  the  Green  Squad. — The 
preliminary  work  of  teaching  girls  to  hold  the  stick 
correctly,  to  hit  accurately,  stop  the  ball  by  foot  or 


24-0  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

stick,  execute  the  dribble,  to  stop  and  hit  immedi- 
ately, use  the  back-handed  and  never  the  left-handed 
play,  to  execute  well  the  short  hit  to  right  and  run 
around  left  of  an  opponent,  to  hook  sticks,  is  slow 
and  uninteresting  with  a  large  squad  of  girls  where 
many  are  unoccupied  much  of  the  time.  It  is  well  in 
such  a  case  to  warm  the  girls  up  by  putting  them 
into  a  game  right  away,  and  giving  the  necessary 
practice  in  passing  "  between  halves." 

One  way  of  giving  practice  in  passing,  and  also 
of  developing  team  play,  is  to  line  up  only  one  side, 
as  at  the  beginning  of  a  game,  start  the  ball  at  the 
goal  and  tell  the  girls  to  advance  it  as  rapidly  and 
accurately  as  possible  towards  and  through  the  oppo- 
site goal.  This  sort  of  practice  develops  quicker  re- 
action than  the  ordinary  class  practice  in  double  line 
passing. 

'  Another  manner  of  teaching  accurate  hitting  is  to 
divide  a  large  class  in  half,  each  half  forming  a  circle, 
the  girls  to  stand  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet 
apart ;  start  one  ball  in  each  circle,  and  have  it  passed 
as  quickly  as  possible  from  one  girl  to  another,  the 
circle  first  finishing  one  or  more  rounds  being  the  win- 
ner. This  element  of  competition  adds  interest  to 
otherwise  rather  tiresome  but  very  necessary  work. 

Before  the  green  squad  is  put  on  the  field  to  play, 
two  things  are  necessary.  The  girls  must  be  shown 
how  to  hold  the  stick  and  make  the  wrist  stroke,  and 
must  have  a  short  talk  on  the  principal  rules.  It  is 
just  as  well  not  to  have  two  full  teams  at  first.  Five 
forwards,  three  halfbacks  and  a  flying  goal  can  be 


FIELD  HOCKEY  241 

played,  or  three  forwards,  two  halves,  a  fullback  and 
a  goal.  When  the  rules  are  violated,  immediately 
stop  play,  explain  and  penalize  the  offender. 
"  Sticks  "  and  using  the  back  of  the  stick  should  sel- 
dom occur  after  the  first  three  or  four  practices. 

In  these  beginning  hockey  periods,  all  girls  will  be 
so  anxious  to  play  the  ball  that  what  will  seem  hope- 
less confusion  will  at  first  result.  Four  or  five  or 
even  six  girls  will  be  on  the  ball  at  the  same  time. 
Girls  will  make  hits  to  right  or  left  and  follow  up 
the  ball,  or  repeatedly  straight  ahead  into  the  hands 
of  opponents ;  will  stand  stock-still  after  playing  the 
ball ;  right  wings  will  play  on  the  left  side  of  the  field ; 
center  halves  outside  of  right  or  left  halves.  Slowly 
the  principles  of  correlating  offense  and  defense  and 
of  playing  their  own  positions  must  be  taught. 

Offense  and  Defense. — The  offensive  work  is  done 
largely  by  the  forward  line  and  to  some  extent  by  the 
halfbacks.  It  is  the  forwards  who  score  points  by 
sending  the  ball  between  their  opponents'  goal-posts. 
The  defense  is  taken  care  of  by  the  halves,  fullbacks 
and  goal.  The  halves  must  attack  the  opposing  for- 
ward line,  recover  the  ball  and  feed  it  to  their  own 
forwards.  If  the  halves  allow  the  ball  to  get  past 
them,  it  is  the  fullbacks  who  must  keep  the  ball 
out  of  the  striking  circle  and  must  return  it  quickly 
to  their  halves.  The  goal-keeper  is  sole  guardian  of 
the  twelve  feet  of  goal  line  between  the  posts.  Hers 
must  be  the  foresight,  agility,  determination  and 
courage  which  prevent  the  actual  scoring  of  a  point. 
Between    the   twenty-five-yard   lines   defensive   work 


242  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

falls  somewhat  to  the  hands  of  the  forwards.  At  the 
twenty-five-yard  line,  however,  defending  forwards 
stop.  Beyond  that,  it  is  entirely  up  to  the  backs  to 
break  up  the  team  work  of  the  attacking  forwards, 
to  regain  the  ball  and  send  it  to  their  waiting  forward 
line  on  the  twenty-five-yard  mark.  The  tendency  is 
for  beginners  in  the  forward  line  to  do  too  much  de- 
fensive work,  to  play  on  top  of  their  halfback  line  in- 
stead of  ahead  of  it.  It  is  expedient  to  give  general 
rules  to  green  players  which,  later  on,  even  with  in- 
creased efficiency,  are  occasionally  broken.  In  de- 
fense, require  players  to  stay  back  of  the  ball,  namely 
between  the  ball  and  the  goal  they  are  defending, 
whether  the  ball  is  in  their  territory  or  not,  at  the 
same  time  watching  closely  the  particular  girl  op- 
posed to  them,  to  prevent  her  receiving  a  pass.  In 
offense,  require  forwards  to  play  on  a  line  with  each 
other  or  only  slightly  ahead  of  the  girl  with  the  ball 
(cautioning  against  off  side),  halves  between  full- 
backs and  forwards,  fullbacks  between  halves  and 
goal.  It  is  remarkable  how  often  these  very  obvious 
and  simple  rules  must  be  repeated. 

Forwards. — Because  the  forwards  do  all  of  the 
aggressive  playing  and  cover  practically  the  whole 
field,  they  must  have  above  all  things  sound  lungs  and 
great  endurance.  Speed,  alertness,  agility,  quick  re- 
action are  essentials.  These  qualities  must  find  their 
highest  development  in  the  center  forward,  about 
whom  the  whole  line  swings,  who  is  the  pivot  for  team 
work  and  the  very  life  of  the  attack.  She  should  be 
a  sure,  accurate  hitter,  able  to  make  passes  to  left 


FIELD  HOCKEY 

or  right  with  equal  ease,  and  to  receive  from  either 
direction.  She  must  not  be  too  fond  of  the  ball,  at- 
tempting to  carry  it  down  the  field  alone,  but  must 
know  just  when  to  pass  it  and  in  what  direction  most 
advantageously.  "  The  mside  forwards  act  as  pivots 
between  center  and  wings.  They  also  want  to  be 
accurate  hitters  and  should  be  able  to  pass  the  ball 
as  easily  to  one  side  as  to  the  other,  ever  on  the  alert 
for  chances,  watching  the  half  and  fullback  lines  for 
passes,  and  prompt  to  pass  the  ball  on  to  the  wings  or 
center." 

Wing  Position. — This,  like  the  guard  in  basket- 
ball, is  probably  the  least  appreciated,  for  the  tend- 
ency is  to  pass  toward  the  center  of  the  field.  The 
wise  player,  however,  uses  her  wing  to  good  advan- 
tage, as  that  position  is  the  most  open  and  unpro- 
tected on  the  field.  The  wing  of  all  forward  posi- 
tions, because  of  the  great  distance  to  travel,  needs 
girls  with  a  high  amount  of  endurance.  The  left 
wing  is  especially  hard  to  play,  because  of  the  skill 
needed  for  receiving  passes  from  the  right  and  re- 
turning in  the  same  direction. 

Halfbacks. — These  do  not  need  quite  such  endur- 
ance or  speed  as  the  forwards.  Nevertheless,  they 
must  have  good  lungs.  They  must  be  heavier  girls, 
for  they  must  be,  above  all,  hard,  accurate  hitters. 
They  must  never  fail  in  energy  or  resource,  for  theirs 
is  the  duty  of  first  defense,  of  attacking  the  onrush- 
ing  opponents  in  the  forward  line.  If  these  succeed 
in  passing  them,  they  must  be  quick  to  turn  and 
resume  defense  once  more  with  tireless  insistence. 


24)4  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

Center  Halfback. — This  player  is  probably  the 
busiest  girl  on  the  team.  She  must  watch  the  oppos- 
ing center  forward  and  halfback,  back  up  her  own 
center  and  know  always  the  best  forward  to  send  the 
ball  to.  She  must  be  cool  and  very  sure  and  have 
absolute  grasp  of  the  new  situations  as  they  develop. 

Right  and  Left  Halfbacks. — These  must  watch  the 
opposing  inside  forwards  and  wings,  must  be  quick  to 
receive  passes  from  their  fullbacks,  and  take  them 
away  from  opposing  forwards.  They  must  be  able 
to  send  long,  hard  balls,  for  at  times  diagonal  passes 
across  the  field  are  necessary. 

The  most  reliable  girls  at  stopping  the  ball  and 
hitting  should  be  the  fullbacks.  A  firm,  quick,  hard, 
sure  stroke  from  the  fullback  exactly  to  the  right  girl 
often  prevents  a  score  and  saves  the  day.  Here  speed 
is  not  an  essential.  A  girl  of  slow  temperament,  upon 
whom  her  team-mates  can  always  depend,  is  the  de- 
sirable fullbafck.  Her  stability  gives  a  sense  of  se- 
curity to  the  whole  team.  When  she  rescues  a  ball 
from  the  striking  circle  and  passes  it  accurately  on  to 
her  waiting  halves  or  forwards,  new  spirit  enters  the 
attack,  and  half  the  game  is  won.  The  fullback, 
though  slow  of  temperament,  must  be  an  adept  at 
stopping  the  ball  with  the  foot  and  instantly  shooting 
it  away  from  the  danger  line.  She  must  be  quick  of 
eye  and  indefatigable  in  defense  of  the  goal  line. 

Goal-tender. — The  goal-tender  must  be  a  girl  of 
absolute  fearlessness  and  instant  reaction.  Her 
chances  do  not  come  often,  but  when  they  do,  they 
bring  the  most  critical  tests  of  nerve,  eye,  body  and 


FIELD  HOCKEY  245 

brain  on  the  field.  No  timid,  shrinking  girl  will  do 
for  a  goal-tender,  unless  she  is  put  there  to  overcome 
these  qualities. 

Team  Work. — The  final  great  task  in  hockey  is  to 
develop  team  work,  without  which  the  game  seems 
crude,  aimless  and  uninteresting  to  spectators  and 
players  alike.  It  is  only  after  constant  repetition  of 
"  stick  to  your  own  position,"  "  follow  your  position, 
not  the  ball,"  that  bunching  is  done  away  with  and 
girls  are  taught  the  meaning  of  team  work.  Stop 
the  game  in  order  to  make  a  right  wing  who  may  be 
left  of  her  center  play  her  own  side  of  the  field ;  or  to 
call  back  a  center-half  who  may  be  rushing  toward 
the  side  lines  after  the  ball.  There  is  nothing  more 
exasperating  than  not  having  a  girl  in  her  proper  rel- 
ative position  when  some  one  wants  to  pass  her  the 
ball.  In  learning  to  play  her  own  position,  she  will 
learn  her  neighbor's  and  not  to  interfere  with  it. 
When  finally  each  girl  realizes  that  she  is  one  of 
eleven  players,  each  one  of  whom  has  a  special  part 
to  play,  all  of  whom  have  one  end  in  view,  and  with- 
out any  of  whom  that  end  cannot  be  accomplished,  a 
really  beautiful  game  results  which  is  a  pleasure  to 
all  spectators  and  players  alike. 


APPENDIX  I 

PRINTED    FORM     OF     INQUIRY    USED     FOR 
SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 

1.  Name  of  School  or  College. 

2.  How  much  physical  work  is  required? 

3.  How    many    instructors    in    Athletics?       Men    or 

Women  ? 

4.  Give  name  of  each  sport  played. 

For  what  length  of  time  during  the  year  is  each 

played  ? 
Name  exact  title  of  the  rules  used  for  each  game 

and  state  reasons  for  preference. 

5.  What  are  the  requirements  for  playing  each  sport? 

6.  What    preliminary    measurements    or    examinations 

are  invariably  made? 

7.  State  average  age  or  range  of  ages  of  girls  playing 

under  your  supervision. 
What  regulations  exist  in  regard  to  dress? 
Times    when    a    girl    should    play,    especially    the 

menstrual  period? 
Baths? 
Length  of  practice  period? 

8.  What  percentage  is  athletic  work  and  what  gym- 

nastic of  the  required  work? 
Of  elective  work? 
9-  May  a  girl  play  games  without  taking  gymnastic 
work  ? 

347 


248  APPENDIX  I 

10.  In  how  many  sports  can  she  play  in  a  quarter  or 

term? 

11.  What  is  the  maximum  amount  of  practice  allowed.'' 

12.  Is  it  necessary  to  stimulate  interest  in  athletics? 

13.  Give   all   the   various   means^   contests,   prizes,    or- 

ganizations,  etc.,   by   which   interest   is   stimu- 
lated. 
How  are  prizes  supplied? 

14.  What   is   your    system    of   coaching,    student,    pro- 
fessional ? 

15.  Give  in  detail  the  arrangement  of  your  work. 

16.  Do  you  have  a  field? 

17.  What  is  the  object  of  coaches,  to  develop  teams  or 

individuals  ? 

18.  What  has  been  the  previous  training  of  your  coach 

or  instructor? 
19-  What  do  you  consider  to  be  the  qualifications  of  a 
coach  ? 

20.  Do  you  select  teams  and  play  match  games? 

21.  Do  you  play  outside  teams? 

22.  Do  you  play  for  prizes? 

23.  If  you  play  only  in  your  own  school  or  college,  who 

are  the  opposing  teams? 

24.  Who  arranges   for  these  contests   and  under  what 

organization  ? 

25.  State  the  average  number  of  contests  per  season  for 

each  sport. 

26.  Are  all  players  permitted  to  take  part  in  contests 

or  only  first  and  second  teams? 

27.  Are  the  officials  men  or  women? 

28.  Are  the  contests  public? 

29-  On  what  conditions  are  men  permitted  to  attend? 
30.  Is  admission  by  purchase  of  ticket  or  invitation? 


APPENDIX  I  249 

31.  When  teams  travel  about  the  city  or  from  city  to 

city,  under  what  supervision  are  they? 

32.  Is  eligibility  to  play  in  contest  based  on  standing 

in  academic  work? 

33.  Have    you    any    kind    of    athletic    organization    or 

association  ? 

34.  If  so,  please   enclose   constitution,   regulation,   and 

other  details. 

35.  What  is  their  object? 

36.  How  are  they  maintained? 

37.  In  what  way  do  they  influence  school  or  college  life 

as  a  whole? 

38.  In   what   way   is   the   social   side   of   athletics    em- 

phasized ? 
39-  Suggestions  and  experiences. 


APPENDIX  II 

SOME  ILLUSTRATIVE  CONSTITUTIONS  OF 
COLLEGE  AND  HIGH  SCHOOL  ATHLETIC 
ASSOCIATIONS 


1.  The  name  of  this  Association  shall  be  "  The 
Athletic  Association  of  College." 

2.  All  members  of  the  Undergraduate  Association 
shall  be  members  of  this  Association. 

3.  The  officers  of  the  Association  shall  be  President, 
Vice  President  with  the  duties  of  Treasurer,  and  Secre- 
tary. The  duties  of  the  President  shall  be  to  call  and 
preside  at  meetings.  The  duties  of  the  Vice  President 
shall  be  to  assume  the  duties  of  the  President  whenever 
necessary,  and  to  act  as  Treasurer.  The  duties  of  the 
Secretary  shall  be  to  keep  the  minutes  of  the  Association 
and  a  list  of  the  members,  to  post  notices  of  the  meetings 
and  to  attend  to  the  correspondence  of  the  Association. 

4.  There  shall  be  two  managers,  one  for  indoor,  and 
one  for  outdoor  athletics,  who  together  with  the  officers 
of  the  Association  shall  constitute  an  Executive  Board 
of  which  the  President  shall  be  chairman. 

5.  The  constitution  and  a  report  of  the  proceedings 
of  the  previous  year  shall  annually  be  read  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Association  at  a  meeting  held  within  the  first 
week  of  the  first  semester. 

6.  A  meeting  may  be  called  at  any  time  by  the  Presi- 

250 


APPENDIX  II  251 

dent  on  her  own  motion  and  must  be  called  on  the 
application  of  five  members.  When  the  President  is 
unable  to  call  a  meeting  on  application  it  shall  be  called 
by  the  Vice  President  or  some  member  of  the  Executive 
Board.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Secretary,  twenty- 
four  hours  previous  to  any  meeting  of  the  Association, 
to  post  on  the  bulletin  board  in  each  hall  a  notice  stating 
the  time  of  said  meeting  and  the  subject  to  be  discussed. 

7.  The  Executive  Board  shall  be  annually  elected  by 
ballot  during  the  first  week  of  May,  and  shall  enter  upon 
their  duties  immediately. 

8.  To  defray  the  expenses  of  the  Association  every 
member  shall  pay  an  annual  due  to  be  fixed  by  the 
Executive  Board.  To  defray  expenses  of  intercollegiate 
athletics  every  member  shall  pay  a  due  to  be  fixed  by 
the  Executive  Board  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  As- 
sociation. If  any  member  find  herself  unable  to  pay 
the  whole  or  part  of  the  assessment  she  shall  make 
known  her  case  to  the  Treasurer  and,  if  she  fail  to  do 
so,  shall  be  held  responsible  for  the  whole. 

9.  One-fourth  of  the  members  of  this  Association  shall 
constitute  a  quorum. 

10.  To  amend  this  constitution  a  majority  of  three- 
fourths  of  the  members  of  the  Association  shall  be 
required.  > 

II 

ARTICLE    I NAME 

This    club    shall    be    known    as    the    Athletic 

Association. 

ARTICLE    II OBJECT 

The  object  of  this  Association  shall  be  to  promote  an 
interest  in  gymnastics   and   athletic   sports   among   the 


262  APPENDIX  II 

students  of College,  and  to  hasten  the  preparation 

of  a  playground. 

ARTICLE    III MEMBERSHIP 

§  1.  Only  students  of College  who  are  regu- 
lar attendants  of  the  gymnasium,  shall  be  eligible  for 
membership. 

§  2.  Members  shall  register  and  pay  dues  before 
November  first;  no  new  members  shall  be  admitted  into 
the  Association  after  the  second  week  preceding  the 
second  meet. 

ARTICLE    IV DUES 

The  annual  dues  shall  be  fifty  cents.  This  does  not 
include  the  additional  fees  for  outdoor  sports. 

ARTICLE    V OFFICERS 

§  1.  The  officers  shall  be  President,  Vice  President, 
Secretary,  and  Treasurer. 

§  2.  Duties  of  Officers. 

1.  The  President  shall  call  all  meetings  of  the  Asso- 
ciation and  preside  at  the  same. 

2.  In  the  absence  of  the  President,  the  Vice  President 
shall  fulfil  the  duties  of  that  officer. 

3.  The  Secretary  shall  take  charge  of  all  the  cor- 
respondence of  the  Association,  keep  the  records  of 
meetings,  give  due  notice  of  same,  and  prepare  a  report 
to  be  read  at  the  annual  meeting. 

4.  The  Treasurer  shall  be  in  charge  of  the  finances 
of  the  Association,  and  shall  prepare  a  report  to  be  read 
at  the  annual  meeting. 

§  3.  Election.  The  officers  shall  be  elected  by 
double  ballot  at  the  annual  meeting  for  the  term  of  one 
year.     A  majority  of  the  members  present  shall  be  suf- 


APPENDIX  11  253 

ficient  for  election,  but  for  re-election  a  vote  of  two- 
thirds  shall  be  necessary.  The  quorum  shall  be  fifteen 
to  carry  on  this  business. 

ARTICLE    VI 

§  1.  The  Executive  Committee  shall  consist  of  the 
officers  of  the  Association,  the  Physical  Director,  and  a 
representative  from  each  of  the  three  lower  classes. 

§2.  Duties.  1.  The  Executive  Committee  shall  be 
in  charge  of  the  four  regular  meetings  of  the  Associa- 
tion, and  shall  be  empowered  to  determine  and  meet  the 
incidental  expenses  of  the  Association  and  to  appoint  all 
other  committees. 

2.  Meetings  of  the  Executive  Committee  shall  be 
called  at  the  discretion  of  the  President,  who  shall  act 
as  Chairman. 

ARTICLE    VII MEETINGS 

§  1.  There  shall  be  four  regular  meetings. 

1.  The  first  gymnasium  meet  to  be  held  the  second 
Saturday  in  January. 

2.  The  open  meet  to  be  held  on  the  second  Saturday 
before  the  spring  vacation. 

All  members  of  the  Athletic  Association  will  be 
eligible  to  compete  in  these  meets.  The  members  of  the 
four  college  classes  shall  compete  for  their  respective 
classes.  Specials  will  compete  for  the  four  college 
classes  according  as  they  are  first,  second,  third,  or 
fourth  year  students.  No  student  who  has  been  at  col- 
lege more  than  four  years  shall  be  eligible  to  the  meets. 

3.  The  Reception  to  the  Freshmen  to  be  held  during 
the  last  two  weeks  of  November. 

4.  The  Annual  Business  Meeting  to  be  held  during 
the  last  week  in  May. 


264  APPENDIX  II 

§  2.  All  other  meetings  shall  be  called  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the  President. 

§  3.  A  quorum  consisting  of  eleven  members  shall  be 
necessary  for  the  transaction  of  business  with  the  ex- 
ception of  that  of  the  election  of  the  officers. 

ARTICLE    VIII AMENDMENTS 

Amendments  to  this  Constitution  shall  be  passed  by 
two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

ARTICLE    IX SPORTS 

§  1.  Basketball.  1.  All  candidates  for  class  and 
college  teams  and  the  Business  Managers  shall  be  mem- 
bers of  the  Athletic  Association. 

2.  Captains  shall  be  chosen  by  the  members  of  the 
teams  for  a  term  of  one  year. 

3.  The  College  Team  shall  be  selected  by  the  Cap- 
tain, the  Physical  Director  and  the  Physical  Instructor. 

4.  The  expenses  of  the  College  Team  shall  be  met  by 
the  Athletic  Association. 

5.  Regulations  for  competitive  class  games  shall  be 
left  in  charge  of  the  Physical  Director. 

§2.  Tennis.  1.  A  Chairman  of  the  Tennis  Section 
shall  be  elected  at  the  Annual  Business  Meeting  of  the 
Athletic  Association,  who  shall  be  in  charge  of  the 
Tennis  interests  of  the  Association;  and  she  shall  be  em- 
powered to  collect  the  annual  dues  of  the  Tennis  Section, 
and  to  appoint  committees. 

2.  The  outdoor  courts  which  belong  to  the  Association 
may  be  used  by  members  of  the  Athletic  As- 
sociation who  have  paid  their  Tennis  Section  dues,  and 
by  any  college  girl  who  does  not  belong  to  the  Athletic 
Association,  on  payment  of  her  tennis  dues.     The  latter 


APPENDIX  II  255 

persons  will  have  no  voice  in  the  management  of  the 
Tennis  Section. 

§  3.  Hockey.  1.  A  Chairman  of  the  Hockey  Section 
shall  be  elected  at  the  Annual  Business  Meeting  of  the 
Athletic  Association;  and  she  shall  be  empowered  to  col- 
lect the  annual  dues  of  the  Hockey  Section  and  appoint 
committees. 

2.  The  outdoor  grounds  which  belong  to  the  Associa- 
tion may  be  used  by  members  of  the  Athletic  Associa- 
tion who  have  paid  their  Hockey  Section  dues,  and  by 

any  student  wlio  does  not  belong  to  the  Athletic 

Association,  on  payment  of  her  hockey  dues.  The 
latter  persons  will  have  no  voice  in  the  management 
of  the  Hockey  Section. 

Ill 

ARTICLE    I NAME 

The  name  of  this  organization  shall  be  the  Woman's 
Athletic  Association  of  the  University  of . 

ARTICLE    II PURPOSE 

The  purpose  shall  be  co-operation  with  the  Woman's 
Department  of  Physical  Culture  for  the  promotion  of 
the  physical  and  social  activity  of  university  women. 

ARTICLE    III OFFICERS 

The  officers  shall  consist  of  a  President,  Vice  Presi- 
dent, and  Secretary  and  Treasurer. 

President 
The  President,  and  in  her  absence,  the  Vice  President, 
shall  call,  and  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  Association, 
Executive  Committee  and  Advisory  Board,  and  shall  per- 


266  APPENDIX  II 

form  such  other  duties  as  the  Association  may  assign 

her. 

Secretary-Treasurer 

The  Secretary-Treasurer  shall  conduct  all  correspond- 
ence, keep  the  minutes  of  the  meetings,  and  all  athletic 
records,  and  shall  have  charge  of  all  funds  of  the  As- 
sociation. She  shall  have  all  disbursements  authorized 
by  the  Executive  Committee,  and  shall  notify  persons  of 
their  election  to  membership. 

Executive  Committee 
The  Executive  Committee  shall  consist  of  the  Presi- 
dent, Secretary-Treasurer  and  Director  of  the  Woman's 
Department  of  Physical  Culture  or  some  one  appointed 
by  her.  They  shall  have  charge  of  all  funds  and  prop- 
erties of  the  Association,  and  decide  such  matters  as  the 
Advisory  Board  may  refer  to  them. 

Advisory  Board 
The  Advisory  Board  shall  include  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee, and  the  chairmen  in  charge  of  the  various  sports 
and  branches  of  organized  work.  They  shall  supervise 
all  movements  for  the  promotion  of  athletic  spirit  and 
interests,  including  all  features  of  public  games  (except 
as  provided  in  Rule  II  of  the  By-Laws),  mass-meet- 
ings and  social  functions.  They  shall  control  all  mat- 
ters not  otherwise  provided  for, 

f  ARTICLE    IV MEETINGS 

A  meeting  of  the  Association  may  be  called  at  any 
time  by  the  President,  or  upon  the  written  request  of 
any  twenty-five  members  of  the  Association. 

There  shall  be   an   annual  meeting  held  the  second 


APPENDIX  II  257 

Tuesday  in  December  for  purposes  of  election  and  other 
routine  business. 

ARTICLE    V ELECTION 

§  1.  All  nominations  for  officers  shall  be  made  by  a 
nominating  committee  selected  by  the  Advisory  Board. 
There  shall  be  at  least  three  nominations  for  each  office. 

§  2.  The  remainder  of  the  Advisory  Board  shall  be 
elected  as  follows:  Each  branch  of  organized  work  shall 
nominate  and  elect  from  the  floor  a  committee  of  five, 
whose  duty  shall  be  to  supervise  and  represent  the  sport 
so  electing  it;  and  to  have  charge  of  the  matters  desig- 
nated to  it  by  the  body  electing  it.  The  chairmen  of 
these  committees  constitute,  with  the  officers  designated, 
the  Advisory  Board. 

§  3.  All  nominations  shall  be  posted  one  week  prior 
to  the  meeting,  all  voting  shall  be  by  ballot,  and  a  ma- 
jority vote  shall  be  required  to  elect.  For  all  meetings 
of  the  Association  seventy-five  persons  shall  be  deemed 
a  quorum. 

ARTICLE    VI TERM    OF    OFFICE 

§  1.  All  officers  and  members  of  the  Board  shall  hold 
office  for  the  period  of  one  year.  Committees  shall 
serve  for  the  same  length  of  time. 

§  2.  All  vacancies  for  President,  Vice  President  and 
Secretary-Treasurer  shall  be  filled  by  the  Advisory 
Board  appointing  one  of  its  own  members.  All  other 
vacancies  shall  be  filled  as  provided  in  Article  V, 
Section  2. 

ARTICLE    VII MEMBERS 

The  Association  shall  be  open  to  all  women  in  the 
University  under  the  following: 


268  APPENDIX  II 

§  1.  Active.  All  women  registered  in  all  organized 
sports,  track  athletics  and  indoor  competitive  work, 
conducted  by  the  Women's  Department  of  Physical 
Culture. 

§  2.  Associate.  All  women  registered  for  gymnasium 
work,  but  not  included  in  Section  1. 

§  3.  Honor.  All  women  who  make  the  University  and 
College  teams,  who  win  points  and  make  records  in 
athletic  and  gymnastic  contests  and  tournaments. 
These  members  must  be  without  university  conditions. 

§  4.  Honorary.     University   faculty  and   alunmse. 

§  5.  All  applications  for  membership,  other  than 
honorary,  shall  be  made  to  the  Secretary,  who  shall  refer 
them  to  the  Director  of  the  Woman's  Department  of 
Physical  Culture,  who  shall  decide  upon  eligibility  and 
membership. 

Recommendations  for  honorary  membership  shall  be 
sent  in  writing  to  the  Secretary  and  referred  to  the  Ad- 
visory Board,  who  shall  pass  upon  and  refer  them  to  an 
Association  vote. 

§  6.  Active  and  associate  members  shall  not  have  vot- 
ing powers  or  right  to  hold  office. 

ARTICLE    VIII FEES 

There  shall  be  no  regular  membership  fee  or  tax,  but 
contributions  may  be  solicited  by  a  committee  appointed 
by  the  Advisory  Board,  for  purposes  designated  by 
them. 

ARTICLE    IX AMENDMENTS 

This  Constitution  may  be  amended  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  the  members  required  to  be  present  at  the  meet- 
ing. These  amendments  shall  be  posted  in  the  gym- 
nasium at  least  ten  days  prior  to  such  a  meeting. 


APPENDIX  II  259 

IV 
HIGH   SCHOOL   CONSTITUTION 

ARTICLE    I NAME 

The   name    of   this    Association    shall    be   the   

High  School  Girls  Athletic  Association. 

ARTICLE    II OBJECT 

The  object  of  this  Association  shall  be  to  encourage 
gymnasium  work  and  such  sports  as  girls  may  properly 
enter  into. 

ARTICLE    III MEMBERSHIP 

All    girls    and    lady    teachers    of    the    High 

School  shall  be  eligible  to  active  membership.     Grade 
teachers  may  also  be  elected. 

ARTICLE    IV MEETINGS 

§  1.  The  annual  meeting  of  this  Association  for  the 
election  of  officers  shall  be  held  on  the  third  Tuesday  of 
September. 

§  2.  Special  meetings  shall  be  held  at  the  call  of  the 
President  or  upon  the  written  request  of  five  members. 

ARTICLE    V 

Quorum.  A  quorum  shall  consist  of  three-fifths  of 
the  active  members. 

ARTICLE    VI 

§  1.  The  officers  of  this  Association  shall  be  a  Presi- 
dent, Vice  President,  Treasurer  and  Secretary. 

§  2.  The  Executive  Committee  shall  consist  of  the 
President,  Vice  President,  Secretary  and  Treasurer,  and 
one  member  of  the  faculty  elected  from  those  holding  a 
preliminary  certificate. 


<e60  APPENDIX  II 

ARTICLE    VII 

§  1.  Duties  of  the  officers.  The  President  shall 
preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  Association  and  Ejcecutive 
Committee. 

She  shall  appoint  all  sub-committees,  not  otherwise 
provided  for,  whenever  duly  requested,  or  when  in  her 
judgment  she  may  deem  it  necessary. 

§  2.  The  Vice  President  shall,  during  the  absence  of 
the  President,  perform  all  the  duties  of  the  President  as 
specified  in  §  1. 

§  3.  The  Secretary  shall  keep  the  minutes  of  all  the 
meetings  of  the  Association  and  Executive  Committee. 
She  shall  conduct  all  correspondence  except  such  as  may 
be  in  the  hands  of  the  managers  and  shall  be  responsible 
for  all  the  books  and  papers  of  the  Association  except 
those  belonging  to  the  Treasurer. 

§  4.  The  Treasurer  shall  have  charge  of  all  money 
belonging  to  the  Association.  She  shall  pay  all  bills  on 
order  signed  by  the  President  and  Secretary,  and  shall 
submit  a  written  report  of  her  transactions  at  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  Association  or  whenever  called  upon  to 
do  so  by  one  of  the  Executive  Committee. 

§  5.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  managers  of  the 
several  teams  to  prepare  a  schedule  of  games. 

§  6.  All  schedules  of  games  and  expenditures  of 
money  shall  be  submitted  to  the  Executive  Committee  for 
ratification.  They  shall  also  have  supervision  of  all 
matters  relating  to  the  Association,  not  otherwise 
provided  for  in  the  Constitution,  and  shall  have 
power  to  remove  captains  and  managers  by  four-fifths 
vote. 

§  7.  The  Executive  Committee  shall  hold  at  least  one 
meeting  each  month  during  the  school  year. 


APPENDIX  II  261 

§  8.  The  Executive  Committee  shall  hold  a  special 
meeting  at  the  request  of  three  members, 

§  9-  Three,  one  of  whom  shall  be  a  teacher,  shall  con- 
stitute a  quorum  of  the  Executive  Committee, 

ARTICLE    VIII ELECTIONS 

§  1.  The  President,  Vice  President,  Secretary  and 
Treasurer  shall  be  elected  by  ballot  at  the  annual  Sep- 
tember meeting. 

§  2,  Team  officers  shall  be  elected  when  necessary. 

§  3.  The  elections  of  captains  shall  be  confirmed  by 
the  Executive  Committee. 

§  4,  All  vacancies  occurring  among  the  officers  of  the 
Association  shall  be  filled  by  the  Executive  Committee, 

ARTICLE    IX FEES 

§  1 .  The  membership  dues  of  this  Association  shall  be 
ten  cents  a  month,  paj'able  monthly. 

§  2.  The  dues  for  honorary  members  shall  be  the 
same  as  for  active  members. 

§  3,  Any  member  failing  to  pay  her  dues  shall  cease 
to  be  a  member  of  the  organization. 

ARTICLE    X RESIGNATIONS 

All  resignations  shall  be  made  in  writing  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Association  and  shall  be  acted  upon 
at  the  next  meeting. 

ARTICLE    XI — ^SUSPENSION    AND    EXPULSION 

§  1.  The  Association  shall  have  power  to  punish  any 
member  by  suspension  or  expulsion  for  any  failure  to 
comply  with  the  articles  of  the  Constitution  or  By-Laws 


262  APPENDIX  II 

or   for   any   conduct   that   will   bring   discredit   on   the 
Association. 

§  2.  The  vote  for  suspension  or  expulsion  shall  be  by 
ballot.  A  three-fourths  vote  of  the  members  present  at 
a  meeting  shall  be  necessary  to  expel  or  suspend. 

ARTICLE    Xn REINSTATEMENT 

Members,  after  suspension,  may  be  reinstated  by  a 
three-fourths  vote  of  the  members  present  at  a  meeting. 

ARTICLE    XIII AMENDMENT 

§  1.  This  Constitution  may  be  amended  by  a  three- 
fourths  vote  of  the  members  of  the  Association  present 
and  voting. 

§  2.  Notice  of  such  proposed  amendment  shall  be 
made  at  a  previous  meeting. 


1.  The  business  meetings  of  this  Association  shall  be 
carried  on  according  to  parliamentary  law. 

2.  Admittance  to  membership.  Names  may  be  pro- 
posed to  the  Membership  Committee,  who  with  the 
Executive  Committee  shall  discuss  and  vote  upon  such 
names,  after  wliich  the  name  or  names  may  be  brought 
before  the  Association  with  the  recommendation  of  these 
two  committees.  Two-thirds  of  membership  vote  shall 
be  necessary  for  election. 

3.  No  member  of  this  Association  sliall  play  or 
practise  basketball  with  any  boy  or  boys  from  the 
High  School  or  town.  The  least  penalty  for  this  offense 
shall  be  suspension  from  the  privileges  of  this  Associa- 
tion. 


APPENDIX  II  26S 

4.  No  public  games  shall  be  held  to  which  men  may 
be  admitted. 

5.  All  questions  of  policy  must  be  submitted  to  and 
passed  upon  by  the  Executive  Committee  before  being 
put  to  vote  by  the  Association. 

If  not  passed  upon  favorably  by  this  committee  they 
shall  be  rejected. 


INDEX 


Anatomy,  courses  in  schools, 
59 

Associations,  high  school 
leagues,  72;  athletic,  in  col- 
leges, 103;  in  private  schools, 
93;  functions  of,  106;  in  set- 
tlements, 125,  138;  social  and 
educational  value  of,  128; 
influence  upon  contests,  157 

Audiences,  socihl  value  of 
games  to,  40;  and  contests, 
152;  influence  of  on  players, 
156 

Battle-ball,  value  of,  166 
Baseball,  see  Indoor  baseball 
Basketball,  in  private  schools, 
88,  90;  in  colleges,  100;  in 
settlements,  123,  127;  in 
high  schools,  70;  in  school 
gardens,  119;  in  welfare 
work,  138;  rules  for  men  and 
women,  179;  lineball,  181; 
non-interference  rule,  186; 
physical  requirements  for, 
189;  training  green  players, 
190;  training  forwards,  195; 
training  guards,  197;  train- 
ing center,  198;  teaching 
rules,  198;  team  work,  199; 
use  of  signals,  210 
Boarding   schools,   athletics    in, 

82 
Board  of  Education,  and  N.  Y. 
athletic     leagues,     75;     and 
conferences,  81 

Camps,  athletics  in,  128 
Captain-ball,    value   of,   27;    in 
colleges,  102,  166 


Captains,      qualifications      and 

duties  of,  173 
Center-ball,  value  of,  166 
Citizenship,    athletics    and,    24; 
training   for,  36;   in   country 
and.  village,  80 
Clubs,  women's,  12;  whist,  13 
Colleges,     as     schools     for    in- 
structors    in     athletics,     62; 
athletics  in,  96;  athletics  for 
graduates  of,  98;  instructors 
in,  98;   contests,  99;  systems 
of    work,     100;    athletic    as- 
sociations in,  103;  field  days, 
108 
Confidence  and  teachers,  50 
Contests,    high-school,    72;    in- 
tercollegiate,   99;     in    parks, 
115;      in      settlements,      124; 
class,      149;      interscholastic, 
150;     effect     on     schoolgirls, 
151;   and   the   audience,   152; 
prizes,  153;  essentials  of,  153, 
155;   and   audience,   156;   and 
athletic     organizations,     157; 
instructor's    attitude    toward, 
171;      field      etiquette,      177; 
dangers   in,    from   conflicting 
basketball  rules,  188 
Co-operation,  training  for,  31 
Country  school  athletic  leagues, 

79 
Courage,  training  for,  34 

Dance      halls,      as      recreation 

centers,  110 
Discipline,    value    of,    36;    and 

instructors,  49;  emphasis  on, 

in  reformatories,  141 
Drive  ball,  27 


265 


^66 


INDEX 


Elocution  and  oratory,  schools 

of,  61 
Esthetics,     and     athletics,     38; 

form,    41 ;    atmosphere    as    a 

part  of,  42 
Etiquette,  field,  177 

Fair  play,  training  for,  32 
Field    days,    in    colleges,    108; 
contests   and,   158;   programs 
for,     159;     regulations,     160; 
field  etiquette,  177 
Fields,  municipal,  116 

Games,  mental  training 
through,  28;  estlietic  value  of, 
38;  atmosphere  of,  41;  educa- 
tion by  minor,  165 

Gymnastics,  instruction  in,  53; 
in  private  schools,  91;  in  col- 
leges,  102 

Health,  and  athletics,  23;  in- 
fluence of  athletics  on,  24; 
and  high  school  games,  73 

High  schools,  training  of  teach- 
ers, 63;  responsibility  for 
selecting  good  teachers,  64; 
conditions  in,  70;  instruct- 
ors in,  71,  leagues,  72; 
responsibility  of  parents  and 
school  authorities,  74;  ath- 
letic leagues  in,  75;  remedies 
for  conditions,  80;  contests 
in,  149 

Hockey,  value  of  training,  27; 
value  of  game,  in  colleges, 
101,  237;  instruction,  238; 
green  squads,  239;  offense 
and  defense,  241 ;  forwards, 
242;  wings,  243;  halfbacks, 
243;  goal  tenders,  244;  team 
work,  245 

Imagination,  training  of,  30 
Immigrants,    need    of   athletics 

for,   134;   and  Y.   W.   C.   A., 

137 


Immorality,  increase  of  among 
women,  11 

Indoor  baseball,  value  of  train- 
ing, 27,  88;  advantages  of 
game,  212;  physical  require- 
ments, 213;  pitchers,  214; 
catchers,  215;  batsmen,  217; 
base  runners,  219;  basemen, 
223;  shortstops,  225;  out- 
fielders, 225;  coaching,  226; 
rules,  227;  definitions  of 
rules,  228 

Instruction,  courses  of,  53; 
combinations  of  courses  in 
high  schools,  89;  need  of  in 
special  schools,  147;  use  of 
prescription  cards  in,  1G9 

Instructors,  special  qualifica- 
tions of,  46;  play  spirit,  47; 
j)roficiency  of,  48;  general 
qualifications  of,  51 ;  relation 
to  players,  52;  men,  52;  and 
schools  of  physical  education, 
53;  dishonesty  of,  65;  in  high 
schools,  71 ;  interference  with, 
90;  in  colleges,  98;  in  private 
schools,  87;  in  settlements, 
124,  127;  methods  of  teach- 
ing, 166;  as  officials,  171 

Investigation  of  conditions  in 
athletics,  81 

I^acrosse,  place  and  value,   166 
Leagues,  athletic,  public  school, 
75;    country    school,    79;    de- 
fects of,   78 
Legislation,  and  social  ethics,  16 
I^ong-ball,  value  of,  166 
Loyalty,  training  in,  33 

Managers,  duties  and  qualifica- 
tions of,  173 

Measurements,  in  private 
schools,  91 

Men,  as  instructors,  52 

Men's  basketball  rules,  180 

Normal  schools,  instruction  in 
athletics,  62;  and  athletic 
leagues,  79 


INDEX 


^67 


Officials,  deficient  training  of, 
59;  responsibility  for  good 
game,  155,  157;  women  as, 
155;  and  audiences,  157;  in- 
structors as,  171;  qualifica- 
tions and  duties  of,  174; 
scorers,  175;  timers,  176; 
linesmen,   179 

Organizations,  non-ethical,  12; 
athletics  in  private  schools, 
93 


Parents,  and  athletics,  43;  at- 
titude toward   play   in  coun- 
try, 80;   responsibility  of,  87 
Parks,     Chicago     system     and 

work,  114 
Pass-ball,  value  of,  166 
Pedagogj'',  and  athletics,  22 
Personal  moralitv,  women  and, 

10 
Physical   education,  schools  of, 
53;    summer   schools   of,   57; 
defects  of,  58 
Physician,  excuses,  87,  101 
Physiologj-,  courses  in,  59 
Playgrounds,   112;  associations, 
113;  play  festivals,  121;  need 
of  in   N.   Y.   City,   121;   and 
settlements,  123 
Polo,  value  of,  166 
Private    schools,    responsibility 
for    teachers,    64;    conditions 
in,   83;    attitude   toward,   84; 
gymnastics    in,    85,    91 ;    in- 
structors    and     parents,    87; 
chaperon  coach,  89;  methods 
of   instruction,   91 ;   measure- 
.  ments,  92 ;  organizations,  93 ; 
remedies    for  present    condi- 
tions, 94 
Prizes,     too     much     emphasis 

upon,  153 
Probation  work,  use  of  athlet- 
ics  in,   143 
Psychology,  courses  in,  59 
Public  opinion,  by  women,  7 
Public    school    athletic    league. 


75;   and   instructors,   77;   de- 
fects of,  78 
Push-ball,  value  of,  27 

Reason,  training  of,  30 

Recreation  centers,  117 

Reformatories,  need  of  athlet- 
ics in,  141 ;  conditions  in, 
143;  athletics  in,  143 

Responsibility,  training  in  sense 
of,  35 

Roofs,  use  of  for  games,  128, 
138 

Rules  of  the  game,  women's 
part  in,  9;  training  in,  in 
private  schools,  89;  general 
suggestions  for  teaching,  169 

Rules,  basketball,  198;  baseball, 
227;  hockey,  239;  methods  of 
teaching,  172 

School  gardens,  112,  118 
Schools   of   philanthropy,   need 
of  courses  of  instruction  in 
athletics,  147 
Schools,  physical  education,  53 ; 
summer,  57;  defects,  58;  and 
social  education,  60 ;  of  elocu- 
tion and  oratorj%  61 ;  normal, 
62;    university    and    college, 
62;  use  of  for  games,  122 
Self-control,  training  in,  30 
Settlements,   122;   facilities  for 
games,   123;   and   instructors, 
124;    contests    in,    124,    127; 
need  of  athletic  associations, 
125,    128;    systems    of    work, 
125 
Social  control,  by  women,  7 
Social    education,    3;    need    of, 
19;  influence  of  athletics  on, 
20;   special  kind   for  women, 
24;  by  means  of  athletics,  26, 
116;  and  schools  of  physical 
training,     60;     and     athletic 
leagues,  78 ;  and  Y.  W.  C.  A., 
137;    need    of    in     reforma- 
tories, 141 
Social  ethics,  women   and,   10; 


268 


INDEX 


non-ethical  acts  and  attitude, 
13;  benevolence  and,  15; 
legislation  and,  16;  and  ath- 
letics, 29 

Social  morality,  women's  in- 
fluence upon,  8;  and  athlet- 
ics, 29;  in  reformatories,  146 

Sociolog}',  courses  in,  59 

Teams,  appearance  of,  153; 
and  spirit  of  playing,  154 

Team  work,  and  social  ethics, 
15;  hockey,  245;  limitations 
by  women's  rules  in  basket- 
ball, 184;  basketball,  199;  use 
of  signals,  210 

Trades  unions,  value  of  athlet- 
ics in  organization  training, 
140;  classes  for  in  settle- 
ments, 141 

Training,  athletic,  neglect  of, 
21;  advantages,  26-38 

Universities,  training  in  physi- 
cal education,  62 

Vacant  lots,  use  of  for  games, 
120,  128 

Vacation  homes,  athletics  in, 
128 

Vacation  schools,  need  of  so- 
cial education  in,  19;  athlet- 
ics in,  117 


Villages,  athletics  in,  80 
Volley-ball,  value,  27,   166;   in 
colleges,  102 

Welfare  work,  athletics  as  a 
part  of,  138;  in  laundries, 
138;  use  of  roofs,  139;  fields 
for  workers,  139 

Women,  social  responsibility 
of,  3;  as  property  holders, 
4;  in  politics,  4;  in  industry, 
5;  in  society,  6;  working  and 
athletics,  130,  189;  as  of- 
ficials, 155 

Women's  basketball  rules,  179; 
disadvantages  of,  181,  186 

Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion, training  schools,  56, 
137,  147 

Young  Women's  Christian  As- 
sociation, course  of  instruc- 
tion, 55;  opportunities  for 
social  education,  129;  need 
of  work  in,  130;  facilities 
and  methods,  131;  fees,  133; 
limitations,  134;  remedies, 
135;  instructors  in,  136,  137; 
use  of  Sundays,  136;  immi- 
grants and,  137;  need  of 
training  schools,  137 


3535     m 


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